英语专业学生写作构思过程个案研究
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摘要
Formulation process is one of the major processes in L2 writing. Despite progress made in understanding the cognitive processes in L2 writing in recent years, limited studies have been devoted to the formulation process of L2 writing in the Chinese EFL context.
The present study attempted to investigate the formulation process of L2 writing. More specifically, the study was to explore the time allocation of formulation process, to analyze how individual factors influence time allocation, and to reveal some distinct features of L2 writing. Data were collected from four advanced Chinese EFL writers (college English major students in their fourth year of study) who performed an argumentative writing task. Think-aloud protocols, interviews and written compositions were used and examined.
Quantitative and qualitative analyses of these data showed that formulation was a predominant process in L2 writing of advanced EFL writers. Despite a high English proficiency level and a reasonably high writing ability, problem-solving formulation engaged a great deal of attention and efforts of these advanced EFL writers as a compensation for the lack of linguistic resources. EFL writers did not distribute their attentional resources equally but tended to keep their writing process at a certain level of fluency. They were likely to have a whole idea or concept in mind at first and then formulated those words or expressions that are most closely connected to the central idea. Individual factors greatly influenced time allocation of L2 formulating process. Rereading and counter-translation helped to facilitate L2 formulating process.
This study has theoretical and pedagogic implications. It contributes to a better understanding of the nature of L2 writing and provides more empirical evidence for L2 theorizing. It also contributes to L2 writing teaching and learning, especially individual tailored ways of teaching and learning. This study is mainly cognitive-oriented. We suggest that more sociocognitive researches should be carried out in the future.
引文
Arndt, V. (1987). Six writers in search of texts: A protocol-based study of L1 and L2 writing. ELT Journal, 41(4), 257-267
Atkinson, D. (2003). L2 writing in the post-process era: Introduction. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12, 3-15.
Bhatia, V. K. (1997). Introduction: Genre analysis and world Englishes. World Englishes, 16,313-319.
Bosher, S. (1998). The Composing Processes of Three Southeast Asian Writers at the Post-Secondary Level: An exploratory Study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7 (2), 205-241.
Cohen, A., & Brooks-Carson, A. (2001). Research on direct versus translated writing: Students' strategies and their results. Modern Language Journal, 85(2), 169-188.
Cumming, A. (1989). Writing expertise and second-language proficiency. Language Learning. 39,81-141.
Edelsky, C. (1982). Writing in a bilingual program: The relation of L1 and L2 texts. TESOL Quarterly, 16,211-228.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal report as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ericsson, K. A. (1998). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. In W. Bechtel & G Graham (Eds.), A companion to cognitive science. 425-423. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32, 365-387.
Friedlander, A. (1990). Composing in English: Effects of a first language on writing in English as a second language. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom. 109-125. Cambridge University Press.
Hall, C. (1990). Managing the Complexity of Revising Across Languages. TESOL Quarterly, 24, 43-60.
Horowitz,D.(1986).Process not product:Less than meets the eye.TESOL Quarterly,20,141-144.
Hyland,K.(2003).Genre-based pedagogies:A social response to process.Journal of Second Language Writing,12,1,17-29.
Johns,A.M.(1990).L1 composition theories:implications for developing theories of L2 composition.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.24-36.Cambridge University Press.
Johns,A.M.,Bawarshi,A.,Coe,R.M.,Hyland,K.,Paltridge,B.,Reiff,M.J.,&Tardy,C.(2006).Crossing the boundaries of genre studies:Commentaries by experts.Journal of Second Language Writing,15,234-249.
Kasper,G.(1998).Analysing Verbal Protocols.TESOL Quarterly.32,358-362.
Kellogg,R.T.(1987).Effects of topic knowledge on the allocation of processing time and cognitive effort to writing processes.Memory and Cognition,15,256-266.
Kobayashi,H.,& Rinnert,C.(1992).Effects of first language on second language writing:Translation vs.direct composition.Language Learning,42,183-215.
Kormos,J.(1998).The Use of Verbal Report in L2 Research——Verbal Reports in L2Speech Production Research.TESOL Quarterly,32,353-362.
Krapels,A.R.(1990).An overview of second language writing process research.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.37-56.Cambridge University Press.
Kroll,B.(1990).What does time buy? ESL student performance on home versus class compositions.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.140-154.Cambridge University Press.
Levy,C.M.,& Ransdell,S.(1995).Is writing as difficult as it seems? Memory and Cognition,23,767-779.
Penningroth,S.L.,& Rosenberg,S.(1995).Effects of a high information-processing load on the writing process and the story written.Applied Psycholinguistics,16,189-210.
Raab,U.(1992).Stages and levels of the L2 writing process.MA-thesis.Marburg University.
Raims,A.(1985).What Unskilled ESL Students Do as They Write:A Classroom Study of Composing.TESOL Quarterly,19,229-258.
Ransdell,S.E.(1995).Generating think-aloud protocols:Impact on the narrative writing of college students.American Journal of Psychology,108,89-98.
Roca de Larios,J.,Marin,J.,& Murphy,L.(2001).A Temporal Analysis of Formulation Processes in L1 and L2 Writing.Language Learning,51(3),497-538.
Roca de Larios,J.,Manchon R.M.,& Murphy,L.(2006).Generating Text in Native and Foreign Language Writing:A Temporal Analysis of Problem-Solving Formulation Processes.The Modern Language Journal,90,I,100-114.
Roca de Lario,J.,Manchon,R.,Murphy,L.,& Marin,J.(2007).The foreign language writer's strategic behaviour in the allocation of time to writing processes.Journal of Second Language Writing,doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.08.005.
Sasaki,M.(2000).Toward an Empirical Model of EFL Writing Processes:An Exploratory Study.Journal of Second Language Writing,9(3),259-291.
Silva,T.(1990).Second language composition instruction:developments,issues,and directions in ESL.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.11-23.Cambridge University Press.
Silva,T.(1993).Toward an Understanding of the Distinct Nature of L2 Writing:The ESL Research and Its Implications.TESOL Quarterly.27,657-675.
Stevenson,M.,Schoonen,R.,& Kees de Glopper.(2006).Revising in two languages:A multi-dimensional comparison of online writing revisions in L1 and FL.Journal of Second Language Writing,15,201-233.
Thorson,H.(2000).Using the Computer to Compare Foreign and Native Language Writing Processes:A Statistical and Case Study Approach.The Modern Language Journal,84,ⅱ,155-170.
Wang,L.(2003).Switching to first language among writers with differing second-language proficiency.Journal of Second Language Writing,12,347-375.
Wang,W.,& Wen,Q.(2002).L1 use in the L2 composing process:An exploratory study of 16 Chinese EFL writers.Journal of Second Language Writing,11,225-246.
Wen,Q.(2001).Applied Linguistics:Research Methods and Thesis Writing.Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Woodall,B.(2002).Language-switching:Using the first language while writing in a second language.Journal of Second Language Writing,11,7-28.
Zamel,V.(1983).The Composing Processes of Advanced ESL students:Six Case Studies.TESOL Quarterly,17,165-187.
Zimmermann,R.(2000).L2 writing:subprocesses,a model of formulating and empirical findings.Learning and Instruction,10,73-79.
方丽青.(2006).ESL学生L1和L2记叙文修辞特征对比研究.外语与外语教学,(11):23-25.
马广惠.(2001).中美大学生英语语篇对比修辞分析.解放军外国语学院学报,(6):5-8.
马广惠.(2002).中美大学生英语作文语言特征的对比分析.外语教学与研究,(5):345-349.
倪岚.(2000).对英语专业二年级学生写作词汇的研究.国外外语教学,(2):38-41.
王墨希 李津.(1993)中国学生英语语篇思维模式调查.外语教学与研究,(4):59-64.
王瑞东(1999).谈大学英语写作中思维短路现象.山东外语教学,(2):85-88.
王文字 文秋芳(2002a).母语思维与二语写作——大学生英语写作过程研究.解放军外国语学院学报,(4):64-67.
王文字 文秋芳(2002b).母语思维与外语作文分项成绩之间的关系.外语与外语教学,(10):17-20.
王文宇 王立非(2004).二语写作研究:十年回顾与展望.外语界,(3):51-58.
文秋芳 郭纯洁(1998).母语思维与外语写作能力的关系:对高中生英语看图作文过程的研究.现代外语,(2):44-56.
吴婧.(2003).大学生英语论说文语篇结构特征调查.国外外语教学,(2):35-42.
修旭东 肖德法(2004).从有声思维实验看英语专业八级写作认知过程与成绩的关系.外语教学与研究,(6):462-466.
尹广琴.(1999).大学低年级学生英汉作文对比实验与分析.外语教学,(3):21-27.
Atkinson, D. (2003). L2 writing in the post-process era: Introduction. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12, 3-15.
Bhatia, V. K. (1997). Introduction: Genre analysis and world Englishes. World Englishes, 16,313-319.
Bosher, S. (1998). The Composing Processes of Three Southeast Asian Writers at the Post-Secondary Level: An exploratory Study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7 (2), 205-241.
Cohen, A., & Brooks-Carson, A. (2001). Research on direct versus translated writing: Students' strategies and their results. Modern Language Journal, 85(2), 169-188.
Cumming, A. (1989). Writing expertise and second-language proficiency. Language Learning. 39,81-141.
Edelsky, C. (1982). Writing in a bilingual program: The relation of L1 and L2 texts. TESOL Quarterly, 16,211-228.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal report as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ericsson, K. A. (1998). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. In W. Bechtel & G Graham (Eds.), A companion to cognitive science. 425-423. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32, 365-387.
Friedlander, A. (1990). Composing in English: Effects of a first language on writing in English as a second language. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom. 109-125. Cambridge University Press.
Hall, C. (1990). Managing the Complexity of Revising Across Languages. TESOL Quarterly, 24, 43-60.
Horowitz,D.(1986).Process not product:Less than meets the eye.TESOL Quarterly,20,141-144.
Hyland,K.(2003).Genre-based pedagogies:A social response to process.Journal of Second Language Writing,12,1,17-29.
Johns,A.M.(1990).L1 composition theories:implications for developing theories of L2 composition.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.24-36.Cambridge University Press.
Johns,A.M.,Bawarshi,A.,Coe,R.M.,Hyland,K.,Paltridge,B.,Reiff,M.J.,&Tardy,C.(2006).Crossing the boundaries of genre studies:Commentaries by experts.Journal of Second Language Writing,15,234-249.
Kasper,G.(1998).Analysing Verbal Protocols.TESOL Quarterly.32,358-362.
Kellogg,R.T.(1987).Effects of topic knowledge on the allocation of processing time and cognitive effort to writing processes.Memory and Cognition,15,256-266.
Kobayashi,H.,& Rinnert,C.(1992).Effects of first language on second language writing:Translation vs.direct composition.Language Learning,42,183-215.
Kormos,J.(1998).The Use of Verbal Report in L2 Research——Verbal Reports in L2Speech Production Research.TESOL Quarterly,32,353-362.
Krapels,A.R.(1990).An overview of second language writing process research.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.37-56.Cambridge University Press.
Kroll,B.(1990).What does time buy? ESL student performance on home versus class compositions.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.140-154.Cambridge University Press.
Levy,C.M.,& Ransdell,S.(1995).Is writing as difficult as it seems? Memory and Cognition,23,767-779.
Penningroth,S.L.,& Rosenberg,S.(1995).Effects of a high information-processing load on the writing process and the story written.Applied Psycholinguistics,16,189-210.
Raab,U.(1992).Stages and levels of the L2 writing process.MA-thesis.Marburg University.
Raims,A.(1985).What Unskilled ESL Students Do as They Write:A Classroom Study of Composing.TESOL Quarterly,19,229-258.
Ransdell,S.E.(1995).Generating think-aloud protocols:Impact on the narrative writing of college students.American Journal of Psychology,108,89-98.
Roca de Larios,J.,Marin,J.,& Murphy,L.(2001).A Temporal Analysis of Formulation Processes in L1 and L2 Writing.Language Learning,51(3),497-538.
Roca de Larios,J.,Manchon R.M.,& Murphy,L.(2006).Generating Text in Native and Foreign Language Writing:A Temporal Analysis of Problem-Solving Formulation Processes.The Modern Language Journal,90,I,100-114.
Roca de Lario,J.,Manchon,R.,Murphy,L.,& Marin,J.(2007).The foreign language writer's strategic behaviour in the allocation of time to writing processes.Journal of Second Language Writing,doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.08.005.
Sasaki,M.(2000).Toward an Empirical Model of EFL Writing Processes:An Exploratory Study.Journal of Second Language Writing,9(3),259-291.
Silva,T.(1990).Second language composition instruction:developments,issues,and directions in ESL.In B.Kroll(Ed.),Second Language Writing:Research Insights for the Classroom.11-23.Cambridge University Press.
Silva,T.(1993).Toward an Understanding of the Distinct Nature of L2 Writing:The ESL Research and Its Implications.TESOL Quarterly.27,657-675.
Stevenson,M.,Schoonen,R.,& Kees de Glopper.(2006).Revising in two languages:A multi-dimensional comparison of online writing revisions in L1 and FL.Journal of Second Language Writing,15,201-233.
Thorson,H.(2000).Using the Computer to Compare Foreign and Native Language Writing Processes:A Statistical and Case Study Approach.The Modern Language Journal,84,ⅱ,155-170.
Wang,L.(2003).Switching to first language among writers with differing second-language proficiency.Journal of Second Language Writing,12,347-375.
Wang,W.,& Wen,Q.(2002).L1 use in the L2 composing process:An exploratory study of 16 Chinese EFL writers.Journal of Second Language Writing,11,225-246.
Wen,Q.(2001).Applied Linguistics:Research Methods and Thesis Writing.Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Woodall,B.(2002).Language-switching:Using the first language while writing in a second language.Journal of Second Language Writing,11,7-28.
Zamel,V.(1983).The Composing Processes of Advanced ESL students:Six Case Studies.TESOL Quarterly,17,165-187.
Zimmermann,R.(2000).L2 writing:subprocesses,a model of formulating and empirical findings.Learning and Instruction,10,73-79.
方丽青.(2006).ESL学生L1和L2记叙文修辞特征对比研究.外语与外语教学,(11):23-25.
马广惠.(2001).中美大学生英语语篇对比修辞分析.解放军外国语学院学报,(6):5-8.
马广惠.(2002).中美大学生英语作文语言特征的对比分析.外语教学与研究,(5):345-349.
倪岚.(2000).对英语专业二年级学生写作词汇的研究.国外外语教学,(2):38-41.
王墨希 李津.(1993)中国学生英语语篇思维模式调查.外语教学与研究,(4):59-64.
王瑞东(1999).谈大学英语写作中思维短路现象.山东外语教学,(2):85-88.
王文字 文秋芳(2002a).母语思维与二语写作——大学生英语写作过程研究.解放军外国语学院学报,(4):64-67.
王文字 文秋芳(2002b).母语思维与外语作文分项成绩之间的关系.外语与外语教学,(10):17-20.
王文宇 王立非(2004).二语写作研究:十年回顾与展望.外语界,(3):51-58.
文秋芳 郭纯洁(1998).母语思维与外语写作能力的关系:对高中生英语看图作文过程的研究.现代外语,(2):44-56.
吴婧.(2003).大学生英语论说文语篇结构特征调查.国外外语教学,(2):35-42.
修旭东 肖德法(2004).从有声思维实验看英语专业八级写作认知过程与成绩的关系.外语教学与研究,(6):462-466.
尹广琴.(1999).大学低年级学生英汉作文对比实验与分析.外语教学,(3):21-27.
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