团队任务冲突对团队任务绩效的影响机理研究
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摘要
提升高技术创新团队竞争力、绩效的关键在于实现其内部知识信息的有效互动。在任务协作过程中,团队内部有关任务的冲突矛盾问题将对其整体的信息加工及效能发挥产生怎样的影响是值得探讨的研究问题。本文以创新团队为研究对象,将其视为信息加工单元,由认知信息加工的分析视角展开了对团队任务冲突及其影响任务绩效的效应机制方面的问题探讨。通过对以往相关研究及理论的回顾与思考,聚焦已有研究有待进一步解决的问题,结合创新团队的特征,本研究构建并验证了团队任务冲突概念构思的三维度结构,及其与任务绩效间关系的影响作用模型。本文对团队任务冲突构思内涵的探明,及对其效应机理的揭示主要是通过以下的研究内容逐步完成实现的:
(1)确认了团队任务冲突构思的三维度结构及其在不同任务背景中存在的组合特征差异
本文运用访谈研究对作为本研究模型起点的团队任务冲突这一核心概念进行了构思内涵的初步解析,通过对访谈收集资料的内容分析提炼得到团队任务冲突的“内容-分配-衔接”三维度。基于已有的“内容-过程”二维结构,将任务冲突的“过程”维度进一步细化为“分配”与“衔接”两个子维度。在任务冲突的该三维结构基础上,结合不同任务背景特征分析比较了各冲突要素组合模式的差异。研究发现不同任务阶段下任务冲突的组合模式存在显著差异,其中,计划阶段的过程分配冲突尤为突出,而执行阶段的过程衔接冲突则显著低于在前后两个阶段中的表现。对处理不同类型任务的团队其内部的任务冲突进行分析可知,相对于产品开发团队而言,有关任务内容议题方面的冲突在从事技术服务类任务的团队工作中较为突出。
(2)揭示了团队任务冲突对其任务绩效作用的认知机制(交互记忆)与行为机制(任务反思),以及团队任务冲突对其任务绩效的影响效应的阶段性差异
在关于团队任务冲突对其任务绩效各方面的影响效应考察中,本研究由认知信息加工的分析视角切入,以团队学习过程模型作为整体框架的结构设计依据,构建了“任务冲突—信息互动—任务绩效”的作用机制模型,具体检验了任务冲突三维度与交互记忆(认知层面的信息互动)、任务反思(行为层面的信息互动)以及包含团队绩效、团队创新和团队学习三要素的任务绩效的影响关系。通过问卷调查收集研究数据,应用结构方程建模技术进行研究模型的拟合验证,其检验结果支持该中介作用模型,即表明任务冲突通过交互记忆与任务反思的中介作用对团队绩效、团队创新与团队学习存在显著的间接效应。此外,在任务冲突的绩效作用模型中还显示出任务反思对交互记忆存在显著的正向作用。在以上确认的任务冲突中介作用机制模型的基础上,本研究通过结构方程模型方法对不同任务阶段下任务冲突的绩效作用模式差异进行了对比检验,分析结果表明在任务计划、执行、交付三阶段中,任务冲突的不同维度对交互记忆、任务反思以及任务绩效各方面的影响效应存在显著差异,其作用模式表现出较强的阶段变化。
(3)验证了团队情境互动(过程导向与情感冲突)在团队任务冲突对团队信息互动(交互记忆与任务反思)的影响关系中存在调节效应
在聚焦考察团队任务冲突与团队信息互动间关系的部分,本研究融入了对互动情境潜在影响的考虑,具体由团队层面理性评价模式与感性表达模式的分析视角切入,将属于团队情境互动探讨范围的过程导向与情感冲突作为任务冲突—信息互动间影响关系的边界条件,分别检验了团队的任务导向、情感冲突在任务冲突与交互记忆、任务冲突与任务反思间影响关系中可能存在的调节效应。
采用层级回归分析方法进行检验的结果表明,过程导向对分配冲突—交互记忆、衔接冲突—交互记忆、衔接冲突—任务反思之间的影响关系体现出积极的调节效应,即团队内部对过程的关注能够消弱分配冲突与衔接冲突对交互记忆造成的负面作用,甚至将引导衔接冲突对任务反思产生正面的促进作用;而针对情感冲突在任务冲突分别与交互记忆、任务反思间关系中的调节效应分析发现,情感冲突在以上影响关系中体现出消极的调节作用,具体来说,团队层面的情感冲突将加剧衔接冲突—交互记忆间的负向影响关系,抑制内容冲突—任务反思间的正向影响关系,并将完全抵消衔接冲突对任务反思潜在的积极效应部分,而表现为对其不良的负面效应。
综上,从研究整体构思上看,团队任务冲突多维构思的确认,为考察不同任务背景下的团队任务冲突要素组合模式的特征表现提供了分析基础,同时使对团队任务冲突其效应进行深入的探讨成为可能,此外,结合本研究聚焦于任务绩效的评价设计,将细化对任务冲突—任务绩效间影响关系的认识与把握。对不同任务阶段与不同任务类型背景下的任务冲突模式差异进行比较,是联系现实团队任务特征进行实际冲突现象分析的研究尝试。本研究针对概括体现为“任务冲突—信息互动—任务绩效”中介作用模型的验证,是对冲突效应的内在机理进行剖析揭示的研究探索,在此基础上,联系任务阶段特征进行分阶段模式的考察,以期由动态的过程视角对任务冲突效应的作用机制进行初步的分析。聚焦于“任务冲突—信息互动”关系的研究部分,本文结合考虑了团队作业的互动情境,探究了团队过程导向与情感冲突在任务冲突对信息互动的作用关系中存在的调节效应,对关键情境条件的具体效应进行了确认。最后,指出了本研究的理论进展与实践启示,说明了存在的不足之处,并提出了后续的研究建议。
In an attempt to enhance high-tech innovation teams' viability and performance, a special attention should be placed on the important organizational issue that how to ensure teams' internal effective information relevant interaction.As a critical facet of the above issue,intra-team task-related conflict is recognized as significant for team information-processing and effectiveness,and its impact mechanisms is in need of deep exploration.Viewing teams as information processors and expanding on a cognitive information-processing perspective on innovation teams' interaction processes,the present study explores the effect mechanism of task conflict on task performance.Selectively reviewing most relevant research and theory and considering innovation teams' characteristics as well,team task conflict three-dimensional construct is identified and its effect mechanism model is constructed in this paper.The current research attempts are realized through several parts as follows:
(1) Team task conflict three-dimensional construct structure is specified and its varied characteristic patterns in different task context are identified
The depth-interview with application of content analysis technique is conducted to explore the construct of team task conflict,which is regarded as the critical starting point of the present research framework.The result indicates that as task conflict is composed of "content-assignment-interface" three facets as a multi-dimensional construct.Developing extant "content-process" structure,process conflict is decomposed into two sub-dimensions,assignment and interface.That is,in the course of task-performing,process-related conflict within teams manifests on two facets of issues about assignment and interface respectively.Based on this multi-dimensional structure of task conflict,different combination forms of conflict elements are described under diverse task work settings.By looking at three different points in time including the beginning,mid,and end phases of task execution,this research indicates task-performing teams experience moderately high levels of process conflict over assignment issues at the early planning stages of task work,while relatively low levels of process conflict over interface issues occur at the mid task stages.Concerning task type,teams supplying technical services experience more task content conflict than product development teams do.
(2) The cognitive(transactive memory) and behavioral(task reflexivity) mediation mechanisms of team task conflict on task performance are identified, and the phrase characteristics of this effect mechanism of task conflict—task performance are recognized
Based on integrating extant team information-processing perspective,a team learning process model that explains the effect mechanisms of task conflict on multi-criteria task performance is developed in current study.Specifically,the hypotheses that cognitive mediation of transactive memory(TM) and behavioral mediation of task reflexivity(RE) transmit the impact of task conflict on task-domain outcomes are examined.
Empirical analyses show that distinct dimensions of task conflict affect TM and RE that in turn result in team performance,team innovation and team learning. Furthermore,the proposition that the strength of team-level reflection processes is related to the development of transactive memory within teams is supported.On the basis of task conflict meditational effect model,structural equation modeling also reveals that the impact patterns of task conflict on task-relevant outcomes have varied depending on the team project stage.The functions of different types of task conflict on TM,RE and multi facets of task performance manifests salient stage characteristics.
(3) The moderation effect of team context interaction(process orientation and emotional conflict) in the link between task conflict and information interaction(TM and RE) are validated
Focusing the linkage between task conflict and team interaction on information processing,the influences of critical team interaction's contextual variables are examined.Specifically,taking into team-level intellectual evaluation pattern and emotional expression pattern accounts,this article suggests that task conflict interacts with team-level process orientation(PO) and emotional conflict(EC) to predict transactive memory and task reflexivity respectively.Hierarchical regressions are conducted to test the moderating roles of PO and EC.The results show that acting as an ameliorator of the main effect relationship,process orientation weakens the negative effects of assignment and interface conflict on TM.Besides,contrasting to the negative relationship between interface conflict and RE in low process-orientated teams,team process conflict on interface issues tends to provoke team collective task reflection under the circumstance advocating process attention.The moderating effect of emotional conflict on the link between task conflict and information interaction (TM and RE) manifests exacerbating function to cause a negative impact.Emotional conflict increases negative effects of interface conflict on TM,and decrease positive effects of content conflict on RE.Concerning the interface conflict's impact on RE, this relationship appears negative in high emotional conflict context whereas interface conflict occurring in low emotional conflict context tends to facilitate team's task-relevant reflection.
In sum,proposition and verification of multi-dimensional task conflict construct lays a foundation for further analysis about its characteristic patterns under different task situation,and also makes it possible to explore its impact mechanism.Multiple criteria focusing on task performance are considered in current paper for the purpose of confirming the detailed conflict—outcome relationship.On inspecting the task conflict patterns' differences varying with diverse task basic situational conditions,the above research attempt brings more practical consideration into current team conflict study.While aiming at uncovering the latent influence mechanism of conflict on performance,the "task conflict—information interaction—task performance" effect model is constructed as the main part of the research framework.Founded on above influence analyses,the study continues with the contingency perspective of conflict by considering the role of temporal phases of team project life in the impact of task conflict on team information-processing interaction and task-relevant performance. Focusing on the linkage between task conflict and information interaction in teamwork context,the critical moderator roles of process orientation and emotional conflict on above influence relationships are recognized.Lastly,the paper discusses the above research findings,theoretical and managerial implications of the study,and also points out research limitations as well as directions for future research.
(1)确认了团队任务冲突构思的三维度结构及其在不同任务背景中存在的组合特征差异
本文运用访谈研究对作为本研究模型起点的团队任务冲突这一核心概念进行了构思内涵的初步解析,通过对访谈收集资料的内容分析提炼得到团队任务冲突的“内容-分配-衔接”三维度。基于已有的“内容-过程”二维结构,将任务冲突的“过程”维度进一步细化为“分配”与“衔接”两个子维度。在任务冲突的该三维结构基础上,结合不同任务背景特征分析比较了各冲突要素组合模式的差异。研究发现不同任务阶段下任务冲突的组合模式存在显著差异,其中,计划阶段的过程分配冲突尤为突出,而执行阶段的过程衔接冲突则显著低于在前后两个阶段中的表现。对处理不同类型任务的团队其内部的任务冲突进行分析可知,相对于产品开发团队而言,有关任务内容议题方面的冲突在从事技术服务类任务的团队工作中较为突出。
(2)揭示了团队任务冲突对其任务绩效作用的认知机制(交互记忆)与行为机制(任务反思),以及团队任务冲突对其任务绩效的影响效应的阶段性差异
在关于团队任务冲突对其任务绩效各方面的影响效应考察中,本研究由认知信息加工的分析视角切入,以团队学习过程模型作为整体框架的结构设计依据,构建了“任务冲突—信息互动—任务绩效”的作用机制模型,具体检验了任务冲突三维度与交互记忆(认知层面的信息互动)、任务反思(行为层面的信息互动)以及包含团队绩效、团队创新和团队学习三要素的任务绩效的影响关系。通过问卷调查收集研究数据,应用结构方程建模技术进行研究模型的拟合验证,其检验结果支持该中介作用模型,即表明任务冲突通过交互记忆与任务反思的中介作用对团队绩效、团队创新与团队学习存在显著的间接效应。此外,在任务冲突的绩效作用模型中还显示出任务反思对交互记忆存在显著的正向作用。在以上确认的任务冲突中介作用机制模型的基础上,本研究通过结构方程模型方法对不同任务阶段下任务冲突的绩效作用模式差异进行了对比检验,分析结果表明在任务计划、执行、交付三阶段中,任务冲突的不同维度对交互记忆、任务反思以及任务绩效各方面的影响效应存在显著差异,其作用模式表现出较强的阶段变化。
(3)验证了团队情境互动(过程导向与情感冲突)在团队任务冲突对团队信息互动(交互记忆与任务反思)的影响关系中存在调节效应
在聚焦考察团队任务冲突与团队信息互动间关系的部分,本研究融入了对互动情境潜在影响的考虑,具体由团队层面理性评价模式与感性表达模式的分析视角切入,将属于团队情境互动探讨范围的过程导向与情感冲突作为任务冲突—信息互动间影响关系的边界条件,分别检验了团队的任务导向、情感冲突在任务冲突与交互记忆、任务冲突与任务反思间影响关系中可能存在的调节效应。
采用层级回归分析方法进行检验的结果表明,过程导向对分配冲突—交互记忆、衔接冲突—交互记忆、衔接冲突—任务反思之间的影响关系体现出积极的调节效应,即团队内部对过程的关注能够消弱分配冲突与衔接冲突对交互记忆造成的负面作用,甚至将引导衔接冲突对任务反思产生正面的促进作用;而针对情感冲突在任务冲突分别与交互记忆、任务反思间关系中的调节效应分析发现,情感冲突在以上影响关系中体现出消极的调节作用,具体来说,团队层面的情感冲突将加剧衔接冲突—交互记忆间的负向影响关系,抑制内容冲突—任务反思间的正向影响关系,并将完全抵消衔接冲突对任务反思潜在的积极效应部分,而表现为对其不良的负面效应。
综上,从研究整体构思上看,团队任务冲突多维构思的确认,为考察不同任务背景下的团队任务冲突要素组合模式的特征表现提供了分析基础,同时使对团队任务冲突其效应进行深入的探讨成为可能,此外,结合本研究聚焦于任务绩效的评价设计,将细化对任务冲突—任务绩效间影响关系的认识与把握。对不同任务阶段与不同任务类型背景下的任务冲突模式差异进行比较,是联系现实团队任务特征进行实际冲突现象分析的研究尝试。本研究针对概括体现为“任务冲突—信息互动—任务绩效”中介作用模型的验证,是对冲突效应的内在机理进行剖析揭示的研究探索,在此基础上,联系任务阶段特征进行分阶段模式的考察,以期由动态的过程视角对任务冲突效应的作用机制进行初步的分析。聚焦于“任务冲突—信息互动”关系的研究部分,本文结合考虑了团队作业的互动情境,探究了团队过程导向与情感冲突在任务冲突对信息互动的作用关系中存在的调节效应,对关键情境条件的具体效应进行了确认。最后,指出了本研究的理论进展与实践启示,说明了存在的不足之处,并提出了后续的研究建议。
In an attempt to enhance high-tech innovation teams' viability and performance, a special attention should be placed on the important organizational issue that how to ensure teams' internal effective information relevant interaction.As a critical facet of the above issue,intra-team task-related conflict is recognized as significant for team information-processing and effectiveness,and its impact mechanisms is in need of deep exploration.Viewing teams as information processors and expanding on a cognitive information-processing perspective on innovation teams' interaction processes,the present study explores the effect mechanism of task conflict on task performance.Selectively reviewing most relevant research and theory and considering innovation teams' characteristics as well,team task conflict three-dimensional construct is identified and its effect mechanism model is constructed in this paper.The current research attempts are realized through several parts as follows:
(1) Team task conflict three-dimensional construct structure is specified and its varied characteristic patterns in different task context are identified
The depth-interview with application of content analysis technique is conducted to explore the construct of team task conflict,which is regarded as the critical starting point of the present research framework.The result indicates that as task conflict is composed of "content-assignment-interface" three facets as a multi-dimensional construct.Developing extant "content-process" structure,process conflict is decomposed into two sub-dimensions,assignment and interface.That is,in the course of task-performing,process-related conflict within teams manifests on two facets of issues about assignment and interface respectively.Based on this multi-dimensional structure of task conflict,different combination forms of conflict elements are described under diverse task work settings.By looking at three different points in time including the beginning,mid,and end phases of task execution,this research indicates task-performing teams experience moderately high levels of process conflict over assignment issues at the early planning stages of task work,while relatively low levels of process conflict over interface issues occur at the mid task stages.Concerning task type,teams supplying technical services experience more task content conflict than product development teams do.
(2) The cognitive(transactive memory) and behavioral(task reflexivity) mediation mechanisms of team task conflict on task performance are identified, and the phrase characteristics of this effect mechanism of task conflict—task performance are recognized
Based on integrating extant team information-processing perspective,a team learning process model that explains the effect mechanisms of task conflict on multi-criteria task performance is developed in current study.Specifically,the hypotheses that cognitive mediation of transactive memory(TM) and behavioral mediation of task reflexivity(RE) transmit the impact of task conflict on task-domain outcomes are examined.
Empirical analyses show that distinct dimensions of task conflict affect TM and RE that in turn result in team performance,team innovation and team learning. Furthermore,the proposition that the strength of team-level reflection processes is related to the development of transactive memory within teams is supported.On the basis of task conflict meditational effect model,structural equation modeling also reveals that the impact patterns of task conflict on task-relevant outcomes have varied depending on the team project stage.The functions of different types of task conflict on TM,RE and multi facets of task performance manifests salient stage characteristics.
(3) The moderation effect of team context interaction(process orientation and emotional conflict) in the link between task conflict and information interaction(TM and RE) are validated
Focusing the linkage between task conflict and team interaction on information processing,the influences of critical team interaction's contextual variables are examined.Specifically,taking into team-level intellectual evaluation pattern and emotional expression pattern accounts,this article suggests that task conflict interacts with team-level process orientation(PO) and emotional conflict(EC) to predict transactive memory and task reflexivity respectively.Hierarchical regressions are conducted to test the moderating roles of PO and EC.The results show that acting as an ameliorator of the main effect relationship,process orientation weakens the negative effects of assignment and interface conflict on TM.Besides,contrasting to the negative relationship between interface conflict and RE in low process-orientated teams,team process conflict on interface issues tends to provoke team collective task reflection under the circumstance advocating process attention.The moderating effect of emotional conflict on the link between task conflict and information interaction (TM and RE) manifests exacerbating function to cause a negative impact.Emotional conflict increases negative effects of interface conflict on TM,and decrease positive effects of content conflict on RE.Concerning the interface conflict's impact on RE, this relationship appears negative in high emotional conflict context whereas interface conflict occurring in low emotional conflict context tends to facilitate team's task-relevant reflection.
In sum,proposition and verification of multi-dimensional task conflict construct lays a foundation for further analysis about its characteristic patterns under different task situation,and also makes it possible to explore its impact mechanism.Multiple criteria focusing on task performance are considered in current paper for the purpose of confirming the detailed conflict—outcome relationship.On inspecting the task conflict patterns' differences varying with diverse task basic situational conditions,the above research attempt brings more practical consideration into current team conflict study.While aiming at uncovering the latent influence mechanism of conflict on performance,the "task conflict—information interaction—task performance" effect model is constructed as the main part of the research framework.Founded on above influence analyses,the study continues with the contingency perspective of conflict by considering the role of temporal phases of team project life in the impact of task conflict on team information-processing interaction and task-relevant performance. Focusing on the linkage between task conflict and information interaction in teamwork context,the critical moderator roles of process orientation and emotional conflict on above influence relationships are recognized.Lastly,the paper discusses the above research findings,theoretical and managerial implications of the study,and also points out research limitations as well as directions for future research.
引文
1 转引自:黄逸群(2007)
2 转引自:唐宁玉(2008)
1 转引自:Tjosvold(1998)
2 转引自:Tjosvold(1998,2008)与Deutsch(2005,P.2)
1 转引自:Tjosvold,陈国权和刘春红(2003)
2 转引自:Tjosvold,陈国权和刘春红(2003)
1 转引自:Simons & Peterson(2000)与Pearson,Ensley & Amason(2002)
1 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005,P.58)
1 注:这里指出目标冲突与资源冲突属于利益冲突的大类之中。
2 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005)
1 转引自:Van der Vegt & Van de Vliert(2005)
1 转引自:Jehn(1997)
1 转引自:Jehn & Bendersky(2003)
2 转引自:Jehn(1995)
3 转引自:Janssen,Van de Vliert & Veenstra(1999)
1 转引自:张志学,Hempel,韩玉兰等(2006)与张钢和熊立(2007)
1 转引自:张志学,Hempel,韩玉兰等(2006)
2 转引自:Austin(2003)与张钢和熊立(2007)
3 转引自:Lewis,Lange & Gillis(2005)
1 转引自:张钢和熊立(2007)
1 转引自:Schippers,Den Hanog & Koopman(2007)
1 转引自:Schippers,Den Hartog & Koopman(2007)
1 转引自:Deutsch(2005,P.2)
1 注:也有学者将其称为“合作性目标导向”(e.g.,张志学,Hempel,韩玉兰等,2006)。
2 转引自:Tjosvold,Law & Sun(2006)
3 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005,P.131)
1 注:对团队效能的评价主要采用的主观测量是通过主管评价及团队成员自评的方式实现的,也有一些研究结合考虑了外部客户的评价;同时也有学者针对团队任务完成的一些硬性指标(如工作完成率与准确率)进行了其效能的客观测量。
2 转引自:张小林和王重鸣(1997)
1 转引自:Caner & West(1998)
1 转引自:London & Sessa(2007)
1 转引自:季晓芬(2008)
2 转引自:方俊明(1998)
3 转引自:方俊明(1998)
4 转引自:乐国安(1989)
1 转引自:Janz,Colquitt & Noe(1997)
1 转引自:季晓芬(2008,P.94)
2 转引自:季晓芬(2008,P.94)
1 注:以上有关场论及群体动力学的相关理论观点,笔者主要参考借鉴了周晓虹(1990)的相关论述。
2 转引自:季晓芬(2008)
1 转引自:Gully,Incalcaterra,Joshi et al.(2002)
1 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005,P.58)
2 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005,P.58)
1 转引自:Carter & West(1998)
1 转引自:Janz,Colquitt & Noe(1997)
2 转引自:Lewis(2004)
3 注:针对本文中的研究对象提及的“知识工作团队”、“(高技术)创新团队”及“研发团队”表意一致,未作严格区分。
1 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005)
1 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005)
1 转引自:Ten Velden,Beersma & De Dreu(2007)
1 转引自:Ellis(2006)
1 转引自:West & Hirst(2004)
2 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005)
3 转引自:West & Hirst(2005)
1 转引自:Pearson,Ensley & Amason(2002)
1 转引自:李晶(2008,P.69)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005)
1 注:本部分进行的探索性因子分析因受到小样本限制,并未综合本文涉及的所有研究变量共同进行探索性因子分析,仅针对具有多维结构的研究变量独立进行,旨在对多维研究变量的结构进行初步的分析。
2 转引自:郑梅莲(2008)与季晓芬(2008)
3 转引自:徐碧祥(2007)
1 转引自:杨志蓉(2006)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005,P.111)
1 转引自:杨志蓉(2006)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005)
1 转引自:田野(2008)
1 转引自:温忠麟,候杰泰和马什赫伯特(2004)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005,P.155)
1 转引自:史江涛(2008,P.132)
1 转引自:史江涛(2008.P.132)
2 注:各测量项目对应的最大因子负荷值中,除PC9与RE7略低于0.5的标准,分别为0.451与0.486以外,其余均大于0.5。
1 转引自:李锋和王二平(2008)
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2 转引自:唐宁玉(2008)
1 转引自:Tjosvold(1998)
2 转引自:Tjosvold(1998,2008)与Deutsch(2005,P.2)
1 转引自:Tjosvold,陈国权和刘春红(2003)
2 转引自:Tjosvold,陈国权和刘春红(2003)
1 转引自:Simons & Peterson(2000)与Pearson,Ensley & Amason(2002)
1 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005,P.58)
1 注:这里指出目标冲突与资源冲突属于利益冲突的大类之中。
2 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005)
1 转引自:Van der Vegt & Van de Vliert(2005)
1 转引自:Jehn(1997)
1 转引自:Jehn & Bendersky(2003)
2 转引自:Jehn(1995)
3 转引自:Janssen,Van de Vliert & Veenstra(1999)
1 转引自:张志学,Hempel,韩玉兰等(2006)与张钢和熊立(2007)
1 转引自:张志学,Hempel,韩玉兰等(2006)
2 转引自:Austin(2003)与张钢和熊立(2007)
3 转引自:Lewis,Lange & Gillis(2005)
1 转引自:张钢和熊立(2007)
1 转引自:Schippers,Den Hanog & Koopman(2007)
1 转引自:Schippers,Den Hartog & Koopman(2007)
1 转引自:Deutsch(2005,P.2)
1 注:也有学者将其称为“合作性目标导向”(e.g.,张志学,Hempel,韩玉兰等,2006)。
2 转引自:Tjosvold,Law & Sun(2006)
3 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005,P.131)
1 注:对团队效能的评价主要采用的主观测量是通过主管评价及团队成员自评的方式实现的,也有一些研究结合考虑了外部客户的评价;同时也有学者针对团队任务完成的一些硬性指标(如工作完成率与准确率)进行了其效能的客观测量。
2 转引自:张小林和王重鸣(1997)
1 转引自:Caner & West(1998)
1 转引自:London & Sessa(2007)
1 转引自:季晓芬(2008)
2 转引自:方俊明(1998)
3 转引自:方俊明(1998)
4 转引自:乐国安(1989)
1 转引自:Janz,Colquitt & Noe(1997)
1 转引自:季晓芬(2008,P.94)
2 转引自:季晓芬(2008,P.94)
1 注:以上有关场论及群体动力学的相关理论观点,笔者主要参考借鉴了周晓虹(1990)的相关论述。
2 转引自:季晓芬(2008)
1 转引自:Gully,Incalcaterra,Joshi et al.(2002)
1 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005,P.58)
2 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005,P.58)
1 转引自:Carter & West(1998)
1 转引自:Janz,Colquitt & Noe(1997)
2 转引自:Lewis(2004)
3 注:针对本文中的研究对象提及的“知识工作团队”、“(高技术)创新团队”及“研发团队”表意一致,未作严格区分。
1 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005)
1 转引自:De Dreu & Weingart(2005)
1 转引自:Ten Velden,Beersma & De Dreu(2007)
1 转引自:Ellis(2006)
1 转引自:West & Hirst(2004)
2 转引自:Johnson & Johnson(2005)
3 转引自:West & Hirst(2005)
1 转引自:Pearson,Ensley & Amason(2002)
1 转引自:李晶(2008,P.69)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005)
1 注:本部分进行的探索性因子分析因受到小样本限制,并未综合本文涉及的所有研究变量共同进行探索性因子分析,仅针对具有多维结构的研究变量独立进行,旨在对多维研究变量的结构进行初步的分析。
2 转引自:郑梅莲(2008)与季晓芬(2008)
3 转引自:徐碧祥(2007)
1 转引自:杨志蓉(2006)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005,P.111)
1 转引自:杨志蓉(2006)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005)
1 转引自:田野(2008)
1 转引自:温忠麟,候杰泰和马什赫伯特(2004)
1 转引自:黄芳铭(2005,P.155)
1 转引自:史江涛(2008,P.132)
1 转引自:史江涛(2008.P.132)
2 注:各测量项目对应的最大因子负荷值中,除PC9与RE7略低于0.5的标准,分别为0.451与0.486以外,其余均大于0.5。
1 转引自:李锋和王二平(2008)
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