就业、工资和福利权益：中国城市劳动力市场上的外来人口
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摘要
改革开放以来，随着城乡之间和地区之间就业机会、收入差距的逐渐加大以及户籍等阻碍劳动力流动、导致劳动力市场分割的相关政策制度的松动，进入东部沿海城市但不具有流入地户口的外来人口数量逐年递增。作为经济增长的重要组成部分，大量的外来人口为中国经济和社会发展做出了巨大的贡献，据统计1978-1999年期间对经济增长贡献率达到了21%，对城市化发展的贡献率达到了75%。但是，众多调查研究表明，受户籍等制度性因素的影响，外来人口在就业岗位获得、工资收入和福利待遇等方面均受到了区别对待。伴随着外来人口规模的增加以及分布的集中化，歧视对经济和社会的发展、产业结构的调整升级、劳动力市场的发育以及社会的和谐稳定等产生了越来越严重的负面影响。
因此，借鉴国内外相关研究经验，本研究以人口迁移理论、劳动力市场分割理论以及劳动力市场歧视理论为基础，利用多种微观计量方法，对外来人口的迁移选择性，以及受户籍等制度性因素的影响，外来人口及其内部女性劳动力在就业、工资和福利方面所受到的歧视程度和变化趋势进行了深入的研究。研究结果表明：
（1）在迁移选择性方面，受教育程度对外来人口迁移行为的影响力度正在加强，不同地区的经济和社会发展对迁移概率的影响方向和影响程度不尽相同，人口流动加深了地区间和城乡间的不均衡，为更大规模的人口迁移流动埋下了伏笔。
（2）在就业歧视方面，外来人口在职业获得上所受到的歧视程度总体上呈现上升的趋势。与本地市民相比，外来市民和农民工仅在技术人员以及办事人员两类职业的获得上存在歧视，且对后者的歧视程度要远大于前者。女性劳动力在专业技术人员、设备操作人员两种职业的获得上存在歧视，但歧视程度的变化趋势却截然相反，同时本地女性所遭受的歧视程度均大于外来女性。在行业进入上，与本地市民相比，外来市民和农民工在中等工资水平行业的进入上存在一定的歧视，并且前者所遭受的歧视程度要大于后者。与外来市民相比，农民工仅在中等以及高工资行业的进入上存在较严重的歧视。性别歧视方面，在低工资行业的进入上，外来市民内部的性别歧视程度要小于本地市民，而在中等工资水平行业的进入上略大于农民工。
（3）在工资收入方面，群体之间以及群体内部男女劳动力之间的工资收入在整个工资分布上存在一定的差异，这在很大程度上是由户籍歧视和性别歧视造成的。群体间的分解结果显示，外来人口所受到的户籍歧视程度在各分位点上均表现为倒U型变化趋势。相对于本地市民，农民工中的中等及以上收入群体和外来市民中的中等及以下收入群体在工资获得上存在歧视，随着收入的提高和下降，歧视程度有所增加；相对于外来市民，农民工的各收入阶层在工资获得上均存在歧视，且歧视程度随着分位数的提高而增加。在对工资低估问题进行处理后，外来人口各收入阶层受到的歧视程度随着本地人口工资收入被低估程度的增加而增大。群体内部性别工资差异的分解结果显示，本地人口和外来人口中女性劳动力在整个工资分布上均存在歧视，但各自的变化趋势以及相对强弱程度有所不同。2000年以前，在中低收入阶层上，本地人口内部的性别歧视程度要远小于外来人口，而在中高收入阶层上反而远大于外来人口，2000年之后情况完全相反，并且在中低及以上收入阶层上的歧视程度不断增强。三群体的分解结果显示，本地市民、农民工和外来市民中女性劳动力所遭受的性别歧视程度存在“梯度”差异。
（4）在福利待遇方面，50%以上的差异是由歧视造成的。与本地市民相比，农民工在劳动福利总量获得上受到歧视程度大于外来市民。在具体福利项目获得上，与本地市民和外来市民相比，农民工在各项福利的获得上均存在歧视，且与本地市民相比所受的歧视程度较大，而在假期等福利待遇上，农民工与外来市民相比不存在歧视。群体内部男女劳动力之间的分解结果表明，无论在福利总量还是具体福利项目获得上，外来市民内部的性别歧视程度要依次高于农民工和本地市民。
最后，我们在分析国内现行反歧视法律和政策的基础上，借鉴国外所采取的措施和取得的经验，针对我国在反歧视法律和法规的制定和执行中存在的法律体系不完善、缺乏反就业歧视的专门机构和有效的救济途径等缺陷，提出了有针对性的政策建议。
Since the opening-up reform in1978, the income and employment inequalitiesbetween rural and urban areas as well as between regions have increased significantly.In the meantime, the hukou (household registration) system, which has impeded thefree flow of labour and led to the segmentation of labour market, has been loosened.Consequently, there has in recent decades been an increasing scale of people movingto a very small number of well-developed coastal regions and large cities, many ofwhom do not have local hukou (household registration). As an integral part ofChina’s economic growth, the large scale of floating population has contributedconsiderably to China’s socio-economic development, approximately21%of GDPgrowth and75%of the urbanization growth between1978and1999. However, manystudies reveal that the majority of migrant workers are treated differently from urbanlocals in the urban labour market due to their hukou status. Along with the increasingscale of migrant workers and centralized distribution, the discrimination againstmigrant workers has negative effect on socio-economic development, the industrialadjustment, labour market development and the social stability.
Base on the migration theory, the discrimination theory and segmented labourmarket theory, this study utilizes different econometric models to examine themigration selectivity and the extent of discrimination against migrant workers andfemale workers in each group in employment, wage and welfare entitlement. Theresults suggest that:
(1) In terms of migration selectivity, the factor of education has an increasing effecton migration propensity. The effects of socio-economic development on migrationpropensity are different in different regions. Population mobility has intensified theimbalance between rural and urban areas as well as between regions, which couldresult in a larger scale of population migration in the future.
(2) With respect to employment, the extent of discrimination against migrantworkers shows an upward trend as a whole. Compared with urban locals, urbanmigrants and rural migrants face the mistreatment in engaging in professional and technical personnel and clerks. The extent of discrimination against the latter is muchlarger than that against the former. Female workers are discriminated in engaging inprofessional and technical personnel and equipment operators. However, thechanging patterns of the extent of discrimination are exactly opposite. In addition, theextent of discrimination against female urban locals is greater than that against femalemigrant workers. In terms of industrial attainment, migrant workers are discriminatedin entering the medium-wage industries compared with urban locals, and the extent ofdiscrimination against urban migrants is greater than that against rural migrants.Within the group of migrant workers, rural migrants face severe discrimination inentering the medium and high-wage industries compared with urban migrants. Theextent of discrimination against female urban migrants is much lower than thatagainst female urban locals in entering the low-wage industrial category, whileslightly greater than that against female rural migrants in entering the medium-wageindustrial category.
(3) In terms of wage income, a significant wage distribution difference existsbetween groups and between male and female workers in each group, most of whichis the consequence of discrimination when all productivity-related factors arecontrolled. Between1993and2006, the extent of discrimination against migrantworkers showed an inverted U-shape at different quantiles. Compared with urbanlocals, rural migrants above medium income level and urban migrants below mediumlevel income tend to be discriminated against. The extent of discrimination increasesgradually as wage increases and decreases. Compared with urban migrants, ruralmigrants are discriminated at all income levels. The extent of discrimination increaseswith the increment of income levels. The similar decomposition results are obtainedafter considering the problem of undervaluation. The only differences are that migrantworkers change to be discriminated at some income levels and the extent ofdiscrimination becomes greater with the increment of underestimated degree in wagedistribution. The decomposition results of the gender wage gaps in each group showthat, female urban locals and migrant workers all have been discriminated in wageearnings since1993, but their changing patterns and the relative strength of the degreeof gender discrimination are different. Before2000at the lower-middle income level the extent of gender discrimination in the group of urban locals was far less than thatin the group of migrant workers. However, at the upper-medium income level thesituation was on the contrary. In addition, the gap between the two groups widenedgradually at lower-medium income level and above. From the decomposition resultswithin the three groups, it can be seen that there are “gradient” differences in theextent of gender discrimination in groups of urban locals, rural migrants and urbanmigrants.
(4) The decomposition results show that more than50%of welfare entitlementdifference is due to the discrimination. Compared with urban locals, the extent ofdiscrimination experienced by rural migrants in access to the total number of benefitswas greater than that experienced by urban migrants. In terms of individual items ofbenefits, compared with urban locals and urban migrants, rural migrants experiencethe discrimination in obtaining all individual items of benefits. The extent ofdiscrimination against rural migrants compared with urban locals is little higher thanthat compared with urban migrants. However, in access to public holidays andweekend leave, rural migrants are discriminated only compared with urban locals,while not compared with urban migrants. The decomposition results of thedifferences between male and female workers in each group show that in general theextents to which the gender discrimination against female urban migrants and ruralmigrants are higher than that against female urban locals.
Finally, we summarize the measures taken by both Chinese and Western countriesto reduce or eliminate the discrimination and the experience they got. The study putsforward to some specific measures aimed at the defects, such as the imperfect ofexisting legal system in formulating and implementing anti-discrimination laws andregulations as well as lack of specialized agency and relief approaches inanti-employment discrimination, to reduce the discrimination in urban labour market.
因此，借鉴国内外相关研究经验，本研究以人口迁移理论、劳动力市场分割理论以及劳动力市场歧视理论为基础，利用多种微观计量方法，对外来人口的迁移选择性，以及受户籍等制度性因素的影响，外来人口及其内部女性劳动力在就业、工资和福利方面所受到的歧视程度和变化趋势进行了深入的研究。研究结果表明：
（1）在迁移选择性方面，受教育程度对外来人口迁移行为的影响力度正在加强，不同地区的经济和社会发展对迁移概率的影响方向和影响程度不尽相同，人口流动加深了地区间和城乡间的不均衡，为更大规模的人口迁移流动埋下了伏笔。
（2）在就业歧视方面，外来人口在职业获得上所受到的歧视程度总体上呈现上升的趋势。与本地市民相比，外来市民和农民工仅在技术人员以及办事人员两类职业的获得上存在歧视，且对后者的歧视程度要远大于前者。女性劳动力在专业技术人员、设备操作人员两种职业的获得上存在歧视，但歧视程度的变化趋势却截然相反，同时本地女性所遭受的歧视程度均大于外来女性。在行业进入上，与本地市民相比，外来市民和农民工在中等工资水平行业的进入上存在一定的歧视，并且前者所遭受的歧视程度要大于后者。与外来市民相比，农民工仅在中等以及高工资行业的进入上存在较严重的歧视。性别歧视方面，在低工资行业的进入上，外来市民内部的性别歧视程度要小于本地市民，而在中等工资水平行业的进入上略大于农民工。
（3）在工资收入方面，群体之间以及群体内部男女劳动力之间的工资收入在整个工资分布上存在一定的差异，这在很大程度上是由户籍歧视和性别歧视造成的。群体间的分解结果显示，外来人口所受到的户籍歧视程度在各分位点上均表现为倒U型变化趋势。相对于本地市民，农民工中的中等及以上收入群体和外来市民中的中等及以下收入群体在工资获得上存在歧视，随着收入的提高和下降，歧视程度有所增加；相对于外来市民，农民工的各收入阶层在工资获得上均存在歧视，且歧视程度随着分位数的提高而增加。在对工资低估问题进行处理后，外来人口各收入阶层受到的歧视程度随着本地人口工资收入被低估程度的增加而增大。群体内部性别工资差异的分解结果显示，本地人口和外来人口中女性劳动力在整个工资分布上均存在歧视，但各自的变化趋势以及相对强弱程度有所不同。2000年以前，在中低收入阶层上，本地人口内部的性别歧视程度要远小于外来人口，而在中高收入阶层上反而远大于外来人口，2000年之后情况完全相反，并且在中低及以上收入阶层上的歧视程度不断增强。三群体的分解结果显示，本地市民、农民工和外来市民中女性劳动力所遭受的性别歧视程度存在“梯度”差异。
（4）在福利待遇方面，50%以上的差异是由歧视造成的。与本地市民相比，农民工在劳动福利总量获得上受到歧视程度大于外来市民。在具体福利项目获得上，与本地市民和外来市民相比，农民工在各项福利的获得上均存在歧视，且与本地市民相比所受的歧视程度较大，而在假期等福利待遇上，农民工与外来市民相比不存在歧视。群体内部男女劳动力之间的分解结果表明，无论在福利总量还是具体福利项目获得上，外来市民内部的性别歧视程度要依次高于农民工和本地市民。
最后，我们在分析国内现行反歧视法律和政策的基础上，借鉴国外所采取的措施和取得的经验，针对我国在反歧视法律和法规的制定和执行中存在的法律体系不完善、缺乏反就业歧视的专门机构和有效的救济途径等缺陷，提出了有针对性的政策建议。
Since the opening-up reform in1978, the income and employment inequalitiesbetween rural and urban areas as well as between regions have increased significantly.In the meantime, the hukou (household registration) system, which has impeded thefree flow of labour and led to the segmentation of labour market, has been loosened.Consequently, there has in recent decades been an increasing scale of people movingto a very small number of well-developed coastal regions and large cities, many ofwhom do not have local hukou (household registration). As an integral part ofChina’s economic growth, the large scale of floating population has contributedconsiderably to China’s socio-economic development, approximately21%of GDPgrowth and75%of the urbanization growth between1978and1999. However, manystudies reveal that the majority of migrant workers are treated differently from urbanlocals in the urban labour market due to their hukou status. Along with the increasingscale of migrant workers and centralized distribution, the discrimination againstmigrant workers has negative effect on socio-economic development, the industrialadjustment, labour market development and the social stability.
Base on the migration theory, the discrimination theory and segmented labourmarket theory, this study utilizes different econometric models to examine themigration selectivity and the extent of discrimination against migrant workers andfemale workers in each group in employment, wage and welfare entitlement. Theresults suggest that:
(1) In terms of migration selectivity, the factor of education has an increasing effecton migration propensity. The effects of socio-economic development on migrationpropensity are different in different regions. Population mobility has intensified theimbalance between rural and urban areas as well as between regions, which couldresult in a larger scale of population migration in the future.
(2) With respect to employment, the extent of discrimination against migrantworkers shows an upward trend as a whole. Compared with urban locals, urbanmigrants and rural migrants face the mistreatment in engaging in professional and technical personnel and clerks. The extent of discrimination against the latter is muchlarger than that against the former. Female workers are discriminated in engaging inprofessional and technical personnel and equipment operators. However, thechanging patterns of the extent of discrimination are exactly opposite. In addition, theextent of discrimination against female urban locals is greater than that against femalemigrant workers. In terms of industrial attainment, migrant workers are discriminatedin entering the medium-wage industries compared with urban locals, and the extent ofdiscrimination against urban migrants is greater than that against rural migrants.Within the group of migrant workers, rural migrants face severe discrimination inentering the medium and high-wage industries compared with urban migrants. Theextent of discrimination against female urban migrants is much lower than thatagainst female urban locals in entering the low-wage industrial category, whileslightly greater than that against female rural migrants in entering the medium-wageindustrial category.
(3) In terms of wage income, a significant wage distribution difference existsbetween groups and between male and female workers in each group, most of whichis the consequence of discrimination when all productivity-related factors arecontrolled. Between1993and2006, the extent of discrimination against migrantworkers showed an inverted U-shape at different quantiles. Compared with urbanlocals, rural migrants above medium income level and urban migrants below mediumlevel income tend to be discriminated against. The extent of discrimination increasesgradually as wage increases and decreases. Compared with urban migrants, ruralmigrants are discriminated at all income levels. The extent of discrimination increaseswith the increment of income levels. The similar decomposition results are obtainedafter considering the problem of undervaluation. The only differences are that migrantworkers change to be discriminated at some income levels and the extent ofdiscrimination becomes greater with the increment of underestimated degree in wagedistribution. The decomposition results of the gender wage gaps in each group showthat, female urban locals and migrant workers all have been discriminated in wageearnings since1993, but their changing patterns and the relative strength of the degreeof gender discrimination are different. Before2000at the lower-middle income level the extent of gender discrimination in the group of urban locals was far less than thatin the group of migrant workers. However, at the upper-medium income level thesituation was on the contrary. In addition, the gap between the two groups widenedgradually at lower-medium income level and above. From the decomposition resultswithin the three groups, it can be seen that there are “gradient” differences in theextent of gender discrimination in groups of urban locals, rural migrants and urbanmigrants.
(4) The decomposition results show that more than50%of welfare entitlementdifference is due to the discrimination. Compared with urban locals, the extent ofdiscrimination experienced by rural migrants in access to the total number of benefitswas greater than that experienced by urban migrants. In terms of individual items ofbenefits, compared with urban locals and urban migrants, rural migrants experiencethe discrimination in obtaining all individual items of benefits. The extent ofdiscrimination against rural migrants compared with urban locals is little higher thanthat compared with urban migrants. However, in access to public holidays andweekend leave, rural migrants are discriminated only compared with urban locals,while not compared with urban migrants. The decomposition results of thedifferences between male and female workers in each group show that in general theextents to which the gender discrimination against female urban migrants and ruralmigrants are higher than that against female urban locals.
Finally, we summarize the measures taken by both Chinese and Western countriesto reduce or eliminate the discrimination and the experience they got. The study putsforward to some specific measures aimed at the defects, such as the imperfect ofexisting legal system in formulating and implementing anti-discrimination laws andregulations as well as lack of specialized agency and relief approaches inanti-employment discrimination, to reduce the discrimination in urban labour market.
引文
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