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协商、适应、行动
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摘要
环境实用主义,是美国环境伦理思想的一个主要流派,也是西方环境伦理学研究领域的一个十分重要的派别。在环境伦理学的发展过程中,越来越多的环境哲学家,包括威斯顿、诺顿、明特尔、莱特、萨戈夫、温茨、帕克、罗森塔尔和布赫兹,都自称为环境实用主义者。这些环境实用主义者中,诺顿和莱特倡导人类中心主义,而温茨则提出非人类中心主义;威斯顿、诺顿、温茨、萨戈夫、帕克、罗森塔尔和布赫兹等明确提倡把美国的实用主义思想和方法应用到环境哲学,莱特则反对这样的做法;一些学者,如威斯顿、诺顿和莱特认为环境哲学必须“跳出”讨论内在价值的窠臼,其它的如明特尔则坚持从实用主义的视角谈论内在价值。
     环境实用主义在环境对话和政策协商中,拒绝诸如“人类中心主义和生态中心主义”的争论,认为这是无意义的,而赞同一种民主、多元的进路,鼓励对环境伦理具有批判性的、民主的协商。与避免争论相关联的是环境实用主义注重行动,其环境议题进路是实践的、实验的、经验的、行动导向的、积极的。在环境实用主义看来,环境实用主义是一种环境行动的哲学,开始于现实世界的问题,过度专门化的华丽辞藻是达不到环境行动的预期目的的。这为环境伦理学中的多种立场打开了一个非常有价值和有历史意义的视角。
     布莱恩·诺顿是环境实用主义的主要倡导者,一位训练有素的科学哲学和语言哲学家。他既有深厚的理论功底,又有在美国环保局做咨询顾问的经历,从而形成了既关注理论学术研究、更关注解决现实环境问题的进路和思想特征。其著作涉及许多学科,在生物多样性、环境政策、保存生态哲学和可持续性等方面的开创性工作尤为著名。与这种多学科相适应的是他对可持续性和实用主义环境政策的提倡。他的特殊兴趣是着眼于可持续性来制定环境政策,致力于从多学科、跨学科对可持续的环境政策的研究、制定和执行,以期为后代人保有广泛的价值选择。
     诺顿的环境实用主义思想受到美国经典实用主义的浸淫,也受到当代环境实用主义者的影响。通过在认识论和道德哲学中使用基本的实用主义理念的实质内容,诺顿尝试把人类中心主义作为环境伦理的基础,并把自己称作是“弱人类中心主义者”。在他看来,真理的实用主义概念与人类共同体长期的可持续性原则相联系;在人与自然的广泛互动中蕴藏着价值多元性;人类共同体中的主体间有效性的发展被视为行动的伦理政策的基础。
     “可持续性”是诺顿环境实用主义思想的核心概念。他用“可持续性”解决意识形态、“割据”和当前的环境话语贫乏问题;用“可持续性”原则作为环境伦理和环境政策的道德导向。而适应性管理(“语境管理”或生态系统管理)则是达到可持续性的桥梁。实际上,他的可持续性定义是从他对适应性管理的描述中推论出来的。他为此提出一个行动者适应环境、做出决策的简单模型:基于一定选择,行动者生存下来并有了后代,他们的后代也会做出自己的选择,而基于其他选择使行动者走向死亡,没有后代。按照这个模型,行动如果没有降低后代人的机遇与限制的比率就是可持续的。为了达到可持续目的,诺顿特别注重对环境政策的实用主义分析。这种策略鼓励在其范围内超越学科的的界定,在探索合理政策中把环境科学和社会价值联系起来。
     在一定意义上,诺顿的方法是把语言分析用于实用主义哲学传统中,认为在公共话语中语言和行动密切相关。他的论证建立在两个假设上:第一,美国人谈论和写作环境的方式是美国各级政府在保护环境公共物品的理性行动上失败的一个主要原因;第二,环境行动的成功和失败经常由公共话语中阐述和讨论问题的方式决定。诺顿对环境伦理的证明是工具性的:他试图揭示环境保护背后的意图及其合理性和合道德性。在他看来,环境伦理学不应过多地介入道德哲学、元伦理学、形而上学或世界观方面的理论争论,而应关注环境管理和环境决策方面的实际问题。创造一个公共空间和对话平台,使利益攸关方就那些充满争议的环境问题表达自己的观点;使各种观点能够通过公共理性的运用,实现有效的交流和沟通,使那些不合理的诉求被公共理性过滤掉。通过对话和商谈,使人们就现实生活中充满争议的重大环境决策问题最终达成某种共识。伦理问题与政治问题密不可分;把伦理问题与政治问题割裂开来,会使环境伦理学陷入合法性危机之中。在环境问题越发突出并日益成为世界广泛关注的焦点的今天,研究包括诺顿在内的美国学者的环境伦理思想,其意义是不言而喻的。
Environmental pragmatism is one of the main schools in environmental ethics inAmerica, and it is also an important school in the research areas of the westernenvironmental ethics. A growing number of environmental philosophers now refer tothemselves as environmental pragmatists, including Anthony Weston, Bryan Norton, BenMinteer, Andrew Light, Mark Sagoff, Aristotelis Santas, Peter Wenz, Kelly Parker, SandraRosenthal and Rogene Buchholz. These self-proclaimed environmental pragmatists do notspeak with an entirely unified voice. While Norton and Light advocate anthropocentrism,Wenz includes nonanthropocentric values. While some, such as Weston, Norton, Wenz,Sagoff, Parker, Rosenthal and Buchholz, explicitly advocate the application of theperspectives and methods of American pragmatism to environmental philosophy, Lightdoes not. While some, such as Weston, Norton and Light, think that environmentalphilosophy must "move beyond" discussion of intrinsic value, others, such as Minteer andSantas, defend pragmatic conceptions of intrinsic value.
     Environmental pragmatism refuses the meaningless debates such as the one betweenanthropocentrism and non-Anthropocentrism in the process of environmental dialoguesand policy consultations. On the contrary, Norton consents a democratic and pluralisticapproach, endorses the critical and democratic consultations to the environmental ethics.Associating with rufusing the meaningless debates, Environmental pragmatism pays greatattention to action. In fact, it is an approach--or at least a set of approaches--toenvironmental issues that is practical, experimental, experiential, action-oriented, active,engaged, and empowering. According to Environmental pragmatists, Environmentalpragmatism is a kind of philosophy of environmental action. It begains with the issues inthe realistic world, and the rhetorical language connot reach the expected targets of theenvironmental actions. This provides a vaulable and historical dimension for many ideasin Environmental ethics.
     Bryan Norton is a leading proponent of environmental pragmatism. He is also abridle-wise scientific and language philosopher. He has both the profound academic basicand the experience of being a consultant in EPA, which make him pay attention to boththeorical research and practical environmental problems in the problem-resolving process.His research includes many disciplines, such as the biology diversity, the environmental policy, the philosophy of conservation biology, and the sustainability. Along with this, headvocate both the sustainability and the pragmatism environmental policy. He applieshimself to institute environmental policy from the sustainability, and to study, form,andimplement the sustainable environmental policy from multi-discipline and inter-disciplinedimension, in order to sustain wide value choices for the following generations.
     Norton's environmental pragmatism thought is affected both by American classicalpragmatists and by contemporary environmental pragmatists. By using basic pragmatismcore ideas, Norton attemps to put anthropocentrism as the foundation of environmentalethics, and he call himself as "the weak anthropocentrist". For him, the pragmatismconception of truth has a close relation to human community's sustainable principles;value diversity is contained in broad interaction between human and nature; thedevelopment of the inter-subjective validity among human community is considered as thefoundation of the active ethic policies.
     Sustainability is the core conception of Norton's environmental pragmatism. He usessustainability to solve the problems, such as ideology, "towering" and the indigence ofpresent environmental language. Meanwhile he puts sustainability principles as the moralguide of the environmental ethics and environmental policies. Adaptive management is thebridge to reach sustainability. In fact, he define sustainability from his description to theadaptive management. He constructs a brief model for an activist to adapt environmentand to make policies. According the model, an action is sustainable if it doesn't reduce theratio of the opportunity and constraint of the following generations. In order to reach thesustainability, Norton pays special attention to analyse environmental policies in thedimension of pragmatism, encourages to define it beyond the disciplines, and relatesenvironmental sciences with social values in the process of researching rational policies.
     In a sense, Norton's method is to use language analyse in the tradation of pragmatism.For him, language has close relations with action in public words. He builds hisargumentations on two assumptions. First, the manner for Americans to talk about andwrite environment is one of the main reasons that American goverments at all levels fail inthe actions of protecting common environmental goods. Second, the success and failure ofenvironmental actions are often decided by the manner of illuminating and discussing theproblems. Norton instrumentally demonstrates environmental ethic, tries to reveal thepurpose of environmental protection and its reasonality and morality. He thinks thatenvironmental ethics should not get involved in the arguments among moral philosophy, meta-ethics, metaphysics and worldviews, but pay attention to the real problems aboutenvironmental managements and policies. We should to build a public space and adialogue platform, which allow all stakeholders to express their ideas about thosecontroversial environmental issues, and allow all kinds of views to be communicated bycommon reasons. With dialog and discussion, the major controversial problems ofenvironmental policies in reality will finally get some kind of common sense. Ethic issuehas close relation with politic one. Separating one from the other will bring theenvironmental ethics with crisis of legitimacy. Today, accompanied by increasinglyprominent environmental problems, it is of great significance to study environmental ethicthoughts of American schoolars including Norton.
引文
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    [2]也是本文主要关注的环境伦理学--作为职业哲学家的实践的环境伦理学。
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    [1]Gordian knot指“难以解决的问题”。
    [2]Paul Veatch Moriarty, Pluralism Without Pragmatism[J], www.cep.unt.edu/ISEE2/2006/Moriarty2.pdf.
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    [4] 诺伊拉特(Otto Neurath),奥地利经济学家,社会学家和逻辑实证主义哲学家。
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    [2] 同上。
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    [2] 克里考特对利奥波德的思想非常尊重,但公开质疑利奥波德有实用主义倾向。
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    [2] 引自Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P73.
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    [1]滕海键:略论美国现代史上的三次环保运动[J],赤峰学院学报,2006年第1期。
    [2]郝卫全:论美国西部开发的环境政策及启示[J],理论导刊,2004年第10期。
    [1]张延杰:20世纪60年代美国环境保护意识的产生[J],东北师大学报,2000年第4期。
    [2]滕海键:试论20世纪60-70年代的美国环境保护运动[J],内蒙古大学学报;2006年第4期。
    [3]同上。
    [1]候文蕙:20世纪90年代的美国环境保护主义和环境主义运动[J],www.fon.org.cn。
    [2]张慧:试析影响美国环保政策制定的因素[J],国际论坛,2002年第5期。
    [3]韩立新:美国的环境伦理对中日两国的影响及其转型[J],中国哲学史,2006年第1期。
    [4][美]巴里·康茫纳:《封闭圈》[M],侯文蕙(译),兰州:甘肃科学技术出版社,1990年,第45页。
    [1]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P193.
    [2]杨通进:论环境伦理学的两种探究模式[J],道德与文明,2008年第1期。
    [1]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P4.
    [1]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P17.
    [1]Topsy是《汤姆叔叔的小屋》中一个被卖作奴隶的小女孩,growed like Topsy就成了一个流行的比喻,表示一种不需要设计、不需要协助、自生自长、放任自流的生存方式。
    [2]卡夫卡式(Kafkaesque)这个词源于卡夫卡,它除了文学意义上理解为卡夫卡的写作风格外,一般的理解是指认识到自己受到无法左右的力量的控制和摆布,发现自己处在一种不能以理性和逻辑去解释的荒诞神秘的境况中,内心充满恐惧、焦虑、迷惑、困扰和愤怒,但又无可奈何,找不到出路;那任意摆布人的力量是出自那样庞大复杂的机制,它又是那样的随意,它无所不在又无所寓形,人受到它的压迫却又赴告无门。
    [1]引自 Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P33-34.
    [1]引自 Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P42.
    [1]Eric Katz. A Pragmatic Reconsideration of Anthropocentrism[J]. Environmental Ethics 21 (1999) 377-390.
    [2][英]赫胥黎:人类在自然界的位置[M],北京:科学出版社,1971年,第52页。
    [3]Bryan G Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists[M], New York: Oxford University Press,1991, P9.
    [1]贺新春、黄家勇:对西方“人类中心主义”思潮的解读[J],沈阳工程学院学报,2006年第1期。
    [2]韩东屏:非人类中心主义环境伦理是否可行[J],浙江社会科学,2001年第1期。
    [1]曾建平:自然之思:西方生态伦理思想探究[M],北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第261-262页。
    [2]引自郑慧子:对两种意义上的人类中心主义的批评[J],自然辩证法研究,2005年第12期。
    [3]傅华:西方生态伦理学研究概况(上)[J],北京行政学院学报,2001年第3期。
    [1]摘编自http://shue98.myweb.hinet.net/c2025.htm.
    [1]孙君恒:论人类中心主义的两种类型[J],韶关学院学报,2006年第7期。
    [2]李寿德、张衡、万威武:中国环境伦理学研究进展[J],自然辩证法研究,2000年第6期。
    [1]金木苏:价值论的第三种思路--兼论环境伦理学如何可能[J],http://www.lunwentianxia.com/product.free.2390057.2/
    [1]埃里克·卡茨:探寻内在价值:环境伦理学中的实用主义及其失望[A].张岂之、舒德干、谢杨举:环境哲学前沿(第1辑)[C],西安:陕西人民出版社,2004年第176页。
    [2]杨通进:寻求人类中心主义与非人类中心主义的重叠共识[J],西北大学学报,2006年第2期。
    [3]Ⅳ,即Intrinsic value,内在价值。
    [1]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P216.
    [2]引自埃里克·卡茨:探寻内在价值:环境伦理学中的实用主义及其失望[A].张岂之、舒德干、谢杨举:环境哲学前沿(第1辑)[C],西安:陕西人民出版社,2004年,第179-180页。
    [1]Christopher J. Preston, Epistemology and Intrinsic Values: Norton and Callicott's Critiques of Rolston[J], Environmental Ethics, Vol. 20(1998): 409-428.
    [2]引自 埃里克·卡茨:探寻内在价值:环境伦理学中的实用主义及其失望[A].张岂之、舒德干、谢杨举:环境哲学前沿(第1辑)[C],西安:陕西人民出版社,2004年,第176页。
    [1]杨通进:儒家与当代西方环境伦理学:一个初步的比较[J],中国哲学史,2006年第1期。
    [2]Bryan G.Norton, Convergence and Contextualism: Some Clarifications and a Reply to Steverson[J], Environmental Ethics 1997, P87.
    [3]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P510.
    [4]Bryan G.Norton, Conservation and Preservation: A Conceptual Rehabilitation[J], Environmental Ethics8(1986): 195-220.
    [1]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: Univcrsity of Chicago Press, 2005, P508.
    [1]参见Marc A. Saner, Biotechnology, the Limits of Norton's Convergence Hypothesis, and Implications for an Inclusive Concept of Health[J], Ethics and the Environment, 5(2):229-241.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P155-159.
    [2] 一元论认为所有的环境价值实际上都是经济的、消费价值的实例理论;二元论和多元论则把自然价值分为基本范畴,并试图从理论上把这些范畴相互关联起来。
    [1] Bryan G.Norton, Environmental Values and Adaptive Management[J], Environmental Values 10 (2001): 473-506.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P 361.
    [2] Ben A. Minteer and Robert E. Manning, Pragmatism in Environmental Ethics: Democracy, Pluralism, and the Management of Nature[J], Environmental Ethics 21 (1999)191-207.
    [3] Bryan G. Norton. Integration or Reduction. Two Approaches to Environmental Ethics. In Andrew Light and Eric Katz (Eds.) Environmental Pragmatism. London and New York: Routledge, 1996, P105.
    [4] Bryan G.Norton, Environmental Ethics and Weak Anthropocentrism[J]. Environmental Ethics 6 (Summer), 1984. P131-148.
    [5] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P130.
    [1][美]戴斯·贾丁斯.环境哲学导论[M],林官明、杨爱民(译),北京:北京大学出版社,2002年,第299页。
    [2]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P291-292.
    [3]Bryan G.Norton, The Re-Birth of Environmentalism as Pragmatec, Adaptive Management[J], http://www.virginia.edu./pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P379-385.
    [2] Bryan G.Norton, The Re-Birth of Environmentalism as Pragmatec, Adaptive Management[J], http://www.virginia.edu./pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [3] Ben A. Minteer and Robert E. Manning, Pragmatism in Environmental Ethics: Democracy, Pluralism, and the Management of Nature[J]. Environmental Ethics 21 (1999) 191-207.
    [4] Bryan G.Norton, Toward Unity Among Environmentalists[M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
    [1]参见Johan Hattingll.Finding Creativity in the Diversity of Environmental Ethics.这篇文章发表在南非环境教育协会主办的年会和学术讨论会论文集《一起增长》。Growing Together.Proceedings of the Annual Conference and Workshops of the Environmental Education Association of Southern Africa, 7-10 September 1999: Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa: 50-78.
    [2]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P244-247.
    [1]Bryan G.Norton. Environmental Values and Adaptive Management[J], Environmental Values 10 (2001): 473-506.
    [2]Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P96.
    [1]  Bryan G.Norton. The re-birth of environmentalism as pragmatic, adaptive management [J], Http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [2] Bryan (2Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P132-138.
    [3] Horst W J. Rittel and Melvin M. Webber. Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning[J], Policy Sciences4 (1973): 155-69.
    [1] Bryan G. Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P58.
    [2] Lynn White. The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis[A]. in Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm ed. The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology[C]. Georgia. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1996.
    [3] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P479-483.
    [1] Bryan G. Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, ⅹⅶ.
    [2]  Bryan G. Norton. The re-birth of environmentalism as pragmatic, adaptive management [J],Http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, ⅹⅱ.
    [2] 同上,P92.
    [3] 同上,P150.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P93-95. Bryan G. Norton. The re-birth of environmentalism as pragmatic, adaptive management [J], Http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [1] Bryan G. Norton. The re-birth of environmentalism as pragmatic, adaptive management [J], Http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [1] Bryan G. Norton. Environmental Values and Adaptive Management[J], Environmental Values 10 (2001): 473-506.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2005, P142.
    [2] Joel A Mintz, Some Thoughts on the Merits of Pragmatism as a Guide to Environmental Protection[J], Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review, 2004, http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3816/is_200401/ai_n9403748/pg_3.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P105-107.
    [2]参见Nicole Hassoun和David Schmidtz在《Environmental Ethics》Volume27, Spring 2005上对诺顿的《寻求持续性》(Searching for sustainability: Interdisciplinary Essays in the Philosophy of Conservation Biology)一书做的书评。
    [3] Bryan G. Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P108-113.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. The re-birth of environmentalism as pragmatic, adaptive management [J], Http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/envlawofcon f/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [2] Bryan G.Norton. Environmental Values and Adaptive Management[J], Environmental Values 10 (2001): 473-506.
    [3] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P120-121.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2005, P151.
    [2]参见:复杂系统的层级原理与模型驱动软件体系结构,http://tech.sina.com.cn/s/s/2008-04-07/1457625159.shtml.
    [3]沈瑞筠:以鸟类体重作为地景层级结构之生物验证[J],http://www.lib.ndhu.edu.tw/theses/available/etd-0729104-120016/off_campus_withheld/etd-0729104-120016.pdf.
    [1] Bryan G. Norton, A Scalar Approach to Ecological Constraints[A], in Peter C. Schulze (ed.),Engineering Within Ecological Constraints[C], Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, P45-64.
    [2] Bryan G. Norton, Ecological integrity and Social Values: At What Scale[J], Ecosystem Healthl(1995): 239.
    [3] Bryan G. Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, p229.
    [1] Bryan G. Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P232-233.
    [2] 同上,P234-238.
    [3] 即影响(impact)=人口 (population)×富裕(affluence)×技术(technology)。
    [4]) Bryan G.Norton. Environmental Values and Adaptive Management[J], Environmental Values 10(2001): 473-506.
    [1] 即经验主义 (experimentalism)、多层建模(multi-scalar modeling)和位置取向(place-orientation )。
    [2] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2005, P455-460。
    [3] Curt Meine. Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work [M], Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988,P282-84.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton, Integration or reduction: Two approaches to environmental values [A], In Andrew Light and Eric Katz(eds.). Environmental Pragmatism[C], London and New York: Routledge, 1996, P125-126.
    [2] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P230.
    [3] 同上,P227-229.
    [1]载重线指一条船边上的线,如果这条线高于水面,表示船的负载没有超过其容量。
    [2]这是美国海外战争期间的一个悲惨事故。军人从海湾乘船回国,在船上他们把所有的东西都丢在了船的一边,使船失去平衡,结果造成船倾覆,死了好多人。
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Integration or Reduction: Two Approaches to Environmental Values[A], in Light and Katz(eds.).Environmental Pragmatism[C], London andNewYork: Routledge, 1996, P122.
    [2] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P354.
    [3] 同上,P389.
    [4] 《我们共同的未来》是世界环境与发展委员会关于人类未来的报告。1987年2月,在日本东京召开的第八次世界环境与发展委员会上通过。
    [1] Brian Kermath. What Is Sustainability?[J], http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/GEM/ambassador/What_is_sustainability.htm.
    [2]曾建平:自然之思:西方生态伦理思想探究[M],北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第196-200页。
    [3] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2005, P120.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P 359-363.
    [2] Bryan G. Norton. The re-birth of environmentalism as pragmatic, adaptive management[J],Http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago:University ofChicagoPress, 2005, P365-371.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P314.
    [2] 赫尔曼·E·戴利是美国著名的生态经济学家,对主流经济增长理论的尖锐批评而闻名于学术界。
    [3] 约翰·科布教授,当代第三代过程哲学家和神学家John Cobb),最早倡导基督教生态神学的人,是女性主义的拥护者,是宗教对话的推动者,是过程哲学的守护者,是国际新政治秩序的倡导者,是建设性后现代主义者。
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Population and Consumption: Environmental Problems as Problems of Scale[J], Ethics and the Environment, 5(1): 2000, P23-45.
    [2] David Pearce and Edward Barbier.Blueprint for a Sustainable Economy[M], London: Earthscan press, 2000, P24.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P316.
    [2] Bryan G.Norton. Environmental Ethics and the Rights of Future Generations[J], Environmental Ethics 4 (1982): P319-30.
    [3] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P304.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton, "Environmental Ethics and Weak Anthropocentrism" ,Environmental Ethics,vol.6,No.2,1984,pp.131-148.引自廖小平:论代际公平何以可能[J],天津社会科学,2004年第6期。
    [2] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P341-345.
    [3] Brown. Ethics. Economics, and International Relations[M], Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 2000, P20-21.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University o fChicago Prcss, 2005, P349.
    [2] 同上,P347.
    [3]廖小平:代际伦理:马克思主义伦理学新的研究课题[J],南通师范学院学报,2003年第1期。
    [4] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P321-323.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2005, P335-340.
    [2] Adirondacks State Park,位于纽约州的上部,是美国第一大州立公园,面积比黄石、大峡谷、Yosemite三个加起来还大。
    [3] Nicole Hassoun和David Schmidtz在《Environmental Ethics》Volume27, Spring 2005上对诺顿的《寻求持续性》(Searching for sustainability: Interdisciplinary Essays in the Philosophy ofConservation Biology)一书做的书评。
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Population and Consumption: Environmental Problems as Problems of Scale[J], Ethics and the Environment, 5(1): 2000, P23-45.
    [1]曾建平:自然之思:西方生态伦理思想探究[M],北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第175、178页。
    [2] A Response From Mark Sagoff, University of Maryland, in A Forum On The Role of Environmental Ethics in Restructuring Environmental Policy and Law for the Next Century[J], Policy Currents, June, 1997, Vol. 7, No. 2.
    [1]陈子善:这些人,这些书[J],文汇读书周报,2008年6月23日。
    [2] Mark Sagoff. The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Environment[A], in The Moral Authority of Environmental Decision Making[C], J.M. Gillroy and J. Bowersox (eds.), Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002, P263.
    [1] 保罗·奥利克(Paul Ehrlich)(1892-1950年),是德国免疫学家、血液学家,亦是化学疗法的奠基人之一。因对免疫学的贡献,於1908年与梅契尼科夫共获诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。
    [2] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P52-53.
    [3]同上,P53-55.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P319.
    [2]同上,P319-329.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Population and Consumption: Environmental Problems as Problems of Scale[J], Ethics and the Environment, 5(1): 2000, 23-45.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P519-525.
    [2]吴开明:论罗蒂对基础主义的拒绝[J],厦门大学学报,2005年第1期。
    [1] Hetch Hetchy Valley,冰川峡谷。19世纪,加州政府计划在优胜美地峡谷和海奇.海奇峡谷各建一个水库,为旧金山地区供水,后经过努力,优胜美地峡谷成为国家公园,并于1984年成为世界自然遗产,而海奇.海奇峡谷建起了水库。
    [2] Bryan G. Norton. The re-birth of environmentalism as pragmatic, adaptive management [J], Http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/envlawofconf/norton-bryan.pdf.
    [3] 同上。
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P447-454.
    [2] 同上,P503-507.
    [1]引自[美]威廉·詹姆士:实用主义[M],陈羽纶、孙瑞禾(译),北京:商务印书馆,1997年,第30-31页。
    [2]同上,第29、31页。
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P440-443.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P461-462.
    [2] 同上,P484-494.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P419-427.
    [1]引自“国家研究委员会”的《理解风险》 (The National Research Council committee. Understanding Risk[M], Washington, DC:National Academy Press, 1996), ⅹ-ⅹⅰ.
    [1]诺顿重新绘制于“国家研究委员会”的《理解风险》(The Nalional Research council committee.Understanding Risk[M], Washington, DC:National Academy Press,1996), P28.
    [1] Bryan G.Norton. Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, P242.
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