医疗实践中的专门知识与公众选择研究
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摘要
随着科学技术的日益分化和高度专业化,某个领域的专家在该领域之外也可能只是外行公众,公众在特定情境之中也会获得一定专门知识。专门知识与公众之间的关系成为当代学术界的重要论题之一。在医疗实践中,我国自2007年实行扩大免疫规划以来,疫苗事件增多,儿童疫苗接种争论不断显现；同时,儿童疫苗的总体高接种率在某种程度上掩盖了公众接种需求和选择原因,理解家长缘何和如何为孩子接种具体种类的疫苗成为研究焦点。而专门知识的增加、公众角色的专业化使其选择儿童疫苗接种的范围不再局限于第二类疫苗,甚至扩展到第一类疫苗中来,典型呈现出专门知识与公众选择之间关系这一主题。
本研究以山西省太原市儿童疫苗接种为个案,运用深度访谈研究方法,透过知识社会学的透镜,探讨医疗实践中的专门知识与公众选择的多样关系,检视专门知识的生成过程以及如何对公众选择儿童疫苗接种发挥作用。进而揭示多种因素共同建构公众选择,折射医学与公众、科学技术与当代中国社会之间关系的多样态特征。
按照专门知识的获得途径不同,本研究将专门知识划分为三个层次：专业技能知识、互动性专门知识和常识性专门知识；依据公众选择接种儿童疫苗的种类和结果不同,将公众选择儿童疫苗接种分为三种类型：接种全部疫苗、接种部分疫苗和拒绝接种疫苗。在公众选择接种儿童疫苗过程中,一方面,由于专门知识的结构不同,掌握不同层次专门知识的公众选择接种不同种类的儿童疫苗；另一方面,由于其他些因素与专门知识的共同影响,掌握不同层次专门知识的公众呈现出选择接种相同种类的儿童疫苗。
具体而言,掌握儿童疫苗接种的专业技能知识的群体包括接种医生和专家。来自国家免疫规划制度、接种实践以及角色认知的专业技能知识,促使接种医生不仅为孩子接种全部疫苗,而且试图说服公众接种全部疫苗。专业技能知识与接种医生选择儿童疫苗接种之间呈现出正向关联。专家以专家知识为依据,完全从医学原理来考究接种每一种疫苗的必要性,并尊重和遵守国家免疫规划制度,从而选择接种第一类疫苗的所有种类、第二类疫苗中的部分疫苗。当受到特殊个人体验的直接影响、实证主义思想居上以及认知到国家免疫规划制度的非惩罚性,他们不仅拒绝接种第二类疫苗和某些第一类疫苗,甚至全部疫苗。
互动性专门知识以公众既有的默会知识为载体,通过经验获得,这种经验是阅读文献和语言交流而非某领域实践的产物。在儿童疫苗接种中,公众通过个体经验、互联网、专业书籍、接种证以及与医务专业技术人员的互动等获得互动性专门知识。由于互动性专门知识的结构不同,以及受到个人体验的影响,公众选择接种全部疫苗与接种部分疫苗。当进行风险—收益分析、出于国家免疫规划制度和科研成果的应用不完全信任的考虑,这部分公众选择接种第一类疫苗的所有种类、拒绝接种第二类疫苗的所有种类。
对接种疫苗的利弊、国家免疫程序、接种疫苗的风险等形成的总体认知或者经验式判断,成为背景知识与其自身的默会知识彼此竞争、相互融合,生成与本地文化和实践相联系的常识性专门知识。这种常识性专门知识与其他因素,共同建构公众选择儿童疫苗接种。当体验到国家免疫规划制度的福利性、受到接种医生的权威建构、个人体验的强化以及从众心理的导引时,这部分公众为孩子接种全部疫苗。当信任并受到国家免疫规划制度的制约,同时由于对接种医生的不信任而放弃与接种医生的互动时,他们凭借已有知识和自身经验选择接种部分疫苗。当受到社会网络的主导影响或者经济因素的制约时,他们选择接种第一类疫苗的所有种类、拒绝接种第二类疫苗的所有种类。
本研究发现,第一,具有互动性专门知识的公众非常乐意通过多种途径获得更多的专门知识,并试图以这些专门知识为依据做出专家式的儿童疫苗接种选择。究其原因,他们不是为了成为专家、超过内行,而是试图在特定文化构架之下,对自己的生活和相关现象有所认识。
第二,具有常识性专门知识并选择接种全部疫苗的公众,将自身定位于被动的接受者,满足于服从接种医生的权威意象,充分享受着福利性的儿童疫苗接种政策,认为没有必要通过其他途径来获取儿童疫苗接种的信息。具有常识性专门知识并选择接种部分疫苗/拒绝接种疫苗的公众,凭借已有知识和自身经验判断接种疫苗的必要性,要求成为参与者、使用者；但他们仍然将自己视为外行,并不喜欢增加的医学知识,认为知识的增加使其处于不知该如何选择的困境之中。
因而,在儿童疫苗接种中,已有的单向线性传播模式难以适应公众专业化的需求,应当根据公众专门知识的不同层次重新建构医学知识的传播模式。而且,管理和决策部门应当针对不同群体传递其所需要的知识和信息,重新定位长远目标与短期目标,重新审视个体权利和群体利益,从而促进儿童疫苗接种政策的合理制订与实施。
Followed with science and technology is increasingly differentiated and highly specialized, an expert in one field is a layman in other fields, and the public can also acquire some expertise in given context. The relationship between expertise and the public becomes one of the most important topics in contemporary academic circles. In medicine, since expanded programme on immunization is implemented in China in2007, there are increasing vaccination events and disputes on childhood vaccination. At the same time, in some extent, the high rate of overall childhood vaccination conceals the public demand and the decision-making reason. Then understanding why and how parents vaccinate for their children becomes the focus of study. The increasing expertise and the specialization of the public role makes their decision-making scope no longer confined to the second type of vaccination, and even extended to the first type of vaccination. So it typically shows the topic of the relationship between expertise and the public decision-making.
Through the lens of the sociology of knowledge, this study takes childhood vaccination in Taiyuan city, Shanxi province as a case study, uses the depth interview method, explores the diversity relationship between expertise and the public decision-making in medicine, examines the generation process of expertise and how it plays the role on the public decision-making. Then it reveals that several factors together construct the public decision-making, reflects the diversity feature of the relationship between medicine and the public, science and technology and contemporary Chinese society.
According to the different methods of acquiring expertise, expertise is divided into three levels:specialist expertise, interactional expertise, and commonsense expertise. In the light of the type and result of vaccination of the decision-making, the public decision-making of childhood vaccination is divided into three kinds:all vaccination, partial vaccination and rejecting vaccination. In the childhood vaccination, on the one hand, the public with the different level expertise have different decision-making because of the different structure of expertise; on the other hand, due to the effect of other factors and expertise together, the public with the different level expertise tend to do decision-making of the same kind of vaccination.
Specially, the groups of specialist expertise include vaccination workers and experts. The specialist expertise of the vaccination workers stems from National Immunization Program system, the practice of vaccination and the cognition of their social role, which makes them not only for their own children do decision-making of all vaccination, but also try to persuade others to do so. Therefore, there is a positive correlation between the specialist expertise and the vaccination workers' decision-making of vaccination. According to their expertal knowledge, the experts explore the necessity of each vaccination completely from medical principles and respect and observe National Immunization Program system, so they do decision-making of partial vaccination. When directly affected by their particular personal experience, the primal positivism thoughts and the understanding of non-penalty of National Immunization Program system, they reject all of the second type of vaccination and some kinds of the first type of vaccination, even all vaccination.
Interactional expertise takes the tacit knowledge as a carrier, and is acquired through the public experience which is not from a field of practice but a product of reading literature and language communication. In the childhood vaccination, the public acquire interactional expertise through individual experience, the Internet, professional books, vaccination certificate, and the interaction with the medical professionals. Because of the different structure of international expertise and being influenced by personal experience, the public do decision-making of accepting all vaccination and partial vaccination. When making the risk-benefit analysis, not fully trusting for National Immunization Planning system and the application of the research achievements, the public will do decision-making of accepting all of the first type of vaccination and rejecting all of the second type of vaccination.
The general cognition or experiential judgment on the advantages and disadvantages of vaccination, National immunization program and vaccination risks, has become the background knowledge, which competes and integrates with the public tacit knowledge each other, then forms commonsense expertise that links with local culture and practice. The commonsense expertise goes together with other factors to construct the public decision-making of childhood vaccination. When the public regard National Immunization Planning system as welfare experience, are constructed by vaccination workers'authority, strengthened by personal experience, and guided by herd mentality, they do decision-making of all vaccination for their children. When they both trust for and are restricted by National Immunization Planning system, distrust for and abandon the interaction with the vaccination workers, they make the decision of partial vaccination by virtue of current knowledge and their own experience. When leadingly influenced by social network or restricted by economic factors, they make the decision of accepting all of the first type of vaccination and rejecting all of the second type of vaccination.
This paper has found that, first, for the public with interactional expertise, they are willing to acquire more expertise through various ways, and try to make similar decision of vaccination as the expert. However, their aims are not to become or pursue the experts, but to better understand their own daily life and related phenomenon under given cultural framework.
Second, making the decision of all vaccination, the public with commonsense expertise still position themselves in passive recipients, are content to obey the image of vaccination workers'authority, and fully enjoy the childhood vaccination as a welfare policy, so they do not think it is necessary to get more information about childhood vaccination through other channels. Making the decision of accepting partial vaccination and rejecting all of the second type of vaccination, the public with commonsense expertise judge the necessity of vaccination by virtue of current knowledge and their own experience, and try to be as participants and users; but they still regard themselves as laymen and do not like increasing expertise which makes them not know how to do the decision-making of vaccination for their own children.
Therefore, in the childhood vaccination, one-way linear model of dissemination has been not to adapt to the change of the public expertise, but to reconstruct the pattern of medical knowledge dissemination on the base of different level of the public expertise. Moreover, the departments of management and decision-making should reorient the long-term goal and the short-term goal, re-examine the individual rights and group interests, and transfer the knowledge and information for different groups according to their needs so as to promote the reasonable development and implementation of childhood vaccination policy.
本研究以山西省太原市儿童疫苗接种为个案,运用深度访谈研究方法,透过知识社会学的透镜,探讨医疗实践中的专门知识与公众选择的多样关系,检视专门知识的生成过程以及如何对公众选择儿童疫苗接种发挥作用。进而揭示多种因素共同建构公众选择,折射医学与公众、科学技术与当代中国社会之间关系的多样态特征。
按照专门知识的获得途径不同,本研究将专门知识划分为三个层次：专业技能知识、互动性专门知识和常识性专门知识；依据公众选择接种儿童疫苗的种类和结果不同,将公众选择儿童疫苗接种分为三种类型：接种全部疫苗、接种部分疫苗和拒绝接种疫苗。在公众选择接种儿童疫苗过程中,一方面,由于专门知识的结构不同,掌握不同层次专门知识的公众选择接种不同种类的儿童疫苗；另一方面,由于其他些因素与专门知识的共同影响,掌握不同层次专门知识的公众呈现出选择接种相同种类的儿童疫苗。
具体而言,掌握儿童疫苗接种的专业技能知识的群体包括接种医生和专家。来自国家免疫规划制度、接种实践以及角色认知的专业技能知识,促使接种医生不仅为孩子接种全部疫苗,而且试图说服公众接种全部疫苗。专业技能知识与接种医生选择儿童疫苗接种之间呈现出正向关联。专家以专家知识为依据,完全从医学原理来考究接种每一种疫苗的必要性,并尊重和遵守国家免疫规划制度,从而选择接种第一类疫苗的所有种类、第二类疫苗中的部分疫苗。当受到特殊个人体验的直接影响、实证主义思想居上以及认知到国家免疫规划制度的非惩罚性,他们不仅拒绝接种第二类疫苗和某些第一类疫苗,甚至全部疫苗。
互动性专门知识以公众既有的默会知识为载体,通过经验获得,这种经验是阅读文献和语言交流而非某领域实践的产物。在儿童疫苗接种中,公众通过个体经验、互联网、专业书籍、接种证以及与医务专业技术人员的互动等获得互动性专门知识。由于互动性专门知识的结构不同,以及受到个人体验的影响,公众选择接种全部疫苗与接种部分疫苗。当进行风险—收益分析、出于国家免疫规划制度和科研成果的应用不完全信任的考虑,这部分公众选择接种第一类疫苗的所有种类、拒绝接种第二类疫苗的所有种类。
对接种疫苗的利弊、国家免疫程序、接种疫苗的风险等形成的总体认知或者经验式判断,成为背景知识与其自身的默会知识彼此竞争、相互融合,生成与本地文化和实践相联系的常识性专门知识。这种常识性专门知识与其他因素,共同建构公众选择儿童疫苗接种。当体验到国家免疫规划制度的福利性、受到接种医生的权威建构、个人体验的强化以及从众心理的导引时,这部分公众为孩子接种全部疫苗。当信任并受到国家免疫规划制度的制约,同时由于对接种医生的不信任而放弃与接种医生的互动时,他们凭借已有知识和自身经验选择接种部分疫苗。当受到社会网络的主导影响或者经济因素的制约时,他们选择接种第一类疫苗的所有种类、拒绝接种第二类疫苗的所有种类。
本研究发现,第一,具有互动性专门知识的公众非常乐意通过多种途径获得更多的专门知识,并试图以这些专门知识为依据做出专家式的儿童疫苗接种选择。究其原因,他们不是为了成为专家、超过内行,而是试图在特定文化构架之下,对自己的生活和相关现象有所认识。
第二,具有常识性专门知识并选择接种全部疫苗的公众,将自身定位于被动的接受者,满足于服从接种医生的权威意象,充分享受着福利性的儿童疫苗接种政策,认为没有必要通过其他途径来获取儿童疫苗接种的信息。具有常识性专门知识并选择接种部分疫苗/拒绝接种疫苗的公众,凭借已有知识和自身经验判断接种疫苗的必要性,要求成为参与者、使用者；但他们仍然将自己视为外行,并不喜欢增加的医学知识,认为知识的增加使其处于不知该如何选择的困境之中。
因而,在儿童疫苗接种中,已有的单向线性传播模式难以适应公众专业化的需求,应当根据公众专门知识的不同层次重新建构医学知识的传播模式。而且,管理和决策部门应当针对不同群体传递其所需要的知识和信息,重新定位长远目标与短期目标,重新审视个体权利和群体利益,从而促进儿童疫苗接种政策的合理制订与实施。
Followed with science and technology is increasingly differentiated and highly specialized, an expert in one field is a layman in other fields, and the public can also acquire some expertise in given context. The relationship between expertise and the public becomes one of the most important topics in contemporary academic circles. In medicine, since expanded programme on immunization is implemented in China in2007, there are increasing vaccination events and disputes on childhood vaccination. At the same time, in some extent, the high rate of overall childhood vaccination conceals the public demand and the decision-making reason. Then understanding why and how parents vaccinate for their children becomes the focus of study. The increasing expertise and the specialization of the public role makes their decision-making scope no longer confined to the second type of vaccination, and even extended to the first type of vaccination. So it typically shows the topic of the relationship between expertise and the public decision-making.
Through the lens of the sociology of knowledge, this study takes childhood vaccination in Taiyuan city, Shanxi province as a case study, uses the depth interview method, explores the diversity relationship between expertise and the public decision-making in medicine, examines the generation process of expertise and how it plays the role on the public decision-making. Then it reveals that several factors together construct the public decision-making, reflects the diversity feature of the relationship between medicine and the public, science and technology and contemporary Chinese society.
According to the different methods of acquiring expertise, expertise is divided into three levels:specialist expertise, interactional expertise, and commonsense expertise. In the light of the type and result of vaccination of the decision-making, the public decision-making of childhood vaccination is divided into three kinds:all vaccination, partial vaccination and rejecting vaccination. In the childhood vaccination, on the one hand, the public with the different level expertise have different decision-making because of the different structure of expertise; on the other hand, due to the effect of other factors and expertise together, the public with the different level expertise tend to do decision-making of the same kind of vaccination.
Specially, the groups of specialist expertise include vaccination workers and experts. The specialist expertise of the vaccination workers stems from National Immunization Program system, the practice of vaccination and the cognition of their social role, which makes them not only for their own children do decision-making of all vaccination, but also try to persuade others to do so. Therefore, there is a positive correlation between the specialist expertise and the vaccination workers' decision-making of vaccination. According to their expertal knowledge, the experts explore the necessity of each vaccination completely from medical principles and respect and observe National Immunization Program system, so they do decision-making of partial vaccination. When directly affected by their particular personal experience, the primal positivism thoughts and the understanding of non-penalty of National Immunization Program system, they reject all of the second type of vaccination and some kinds of the first type of vaccination, even all vaccination.
Interactional expertise takes the tacit knowledge as a carrier, and is acquired through the public experience which is not from a field of practice but a product of reading literature and language communication. In the childhood vaccination, the public acquire interactional expertise through individual experience, the Internet, professional books, vaccination certificate, and the interaction with the medical professionals. Because of the different structure of international expertise and being influenced by personal experience, the public do decision-making of accepting all vaccination and partial vaccination. When making the risk-benefit analysis, not fully trusting for National Immunization Planning system and the application of the research achievements, the public will do decision-making of accepting all of the first type of vaccination and rejecting all of the second type of vaccination.
The general cognition or experiential judgment on the advantages and disadvantages of vaccination, National immunization program and vaccination risks, has become the background knowledge, which competes and integrates with the public tacit knowledge each other, then forms commonsense expertise that links with local culture and practice. The commonsense expertise goes together with other factors to construct the public decision-making of childhood vaccination. When the public regard National Immunization Planning system as welfare experience, are constructed by vaccination workers'authority, strengthened by personal experience, and guided by herd mentality, they do decision-making of all vaccination for their children. When they both trust for and are restricted by National Immunization Planning system, distrust for and abandon the interaction with the vaccination workers, they make the decision of partial vaccination by virtue of current knowledge and their own experience. When leadingly influenced by social network or restricted by economic factors, they make the decision of accepting all of the first type of vaccination and rejecting all of the second type of vaccination.
This paper has found that, first, for the public with interactional expertise, they are willing to acquire more expertise through various ways, and try to make similar decision of vaccination as the expert. However, their aims are not to become or pursue the experts, but to better understand their own daily life and related phenomenon under given cultural framework.
Second, making the decision of all vaccination, the public with commonsense expertise still position themselves in passive recipients, are content to obey the image of vaccination workers'authority, and fully enjoy the childhood vaccination as a welfare policy, so they do not think it is necessary to get more information about childhood vaccination through other channels. Making the decision of accepting partial vaccination and rejecting all of the second type of vaccination, the public with commonsense expertise judge the necessity of vaccination by virtue of current knowledge and their own experience, and try to be as participants and users; but they still regard themselves as laymen and do not like increasing expertise which makes them not know how to do the decision-making of vaccination for their own children.
Therefore, in the childhood vaccination, one-way linear model of dissemination has been not to adapt to the change of the public expertise, but to reconstruct the pattern of medical knowledge dissemination on the base of different level of the public expertise. Moreover, the departments of management and decision-making should reorient the long-term goal and the short-term goal, re-examine the individual rights and group interests, and transfer the knowledge and information for different groups according to their needs so as to promote the reasonable development and implementation of childhood vaccination policy.
引文
② Latour, B. From the World of Science to the World of Research?[J]. Science,1998(5361):208-209
① Collins, H M., and Evans, R J. The third wave of Science Studies:Studies of Expertise and Experience^]. Social Studies of Science,2002(2):237
① 请参见郭燕霞,赵万里.建构主义视角下的医学知识问题研究[J].自然辩证法研究,2012(10)
② 舒俭德.人用疫苗：回顾与展望[J].中国汁划免疫,2000(2)
③ 1974年以来,国外将“4苗防6病”的儿童接种计划称为扩大免疫规划(expanded programme on immunization, EPI)
④ 段大鹏等.2006年各国纳入免疫规划疫苗概况[J].中国计划免疫,2007(3)
⑤ 具体的国家免疫规划政策的演变请参见附录A:中国现行扩大免疫规划疫苗种类请参见附录B
① Salmon, D A., Teret, S P., Maclntyre, C R. etc. Compulsory vaccination and conscientious or philosophical exemptions:past, present, and future[J].The Lancet,2006 (9508):436-442
③ 梁其姿.面对疾病——传统中国社会的医疗观念与组织[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2012.66,86,114,115
① 请参见迈克尔·波兰尼.个人知识—迈向后批判哲学[M].许泽民译,贵阳：贵州人民出版社,2000
② 新手阶段(novice)——初学者阶段(the advanced beginner)——胜任阶段(competence)——熟练阶段(proficiency)——专门知识阶段(expertise)——精通阶段(mastery)——实践智慧阶段(Practical wisdom)
③ Dreyfus, H L. How Far is Distance Learning from Education? In Selinger, E. and Crease, R P. The Philosophy of Expertise[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2006.200-208
④ 请参见张帆.科学、知识与行动[博士论文].太原：山西大学,2010
⑤ 将专业知识划分为5个层次：标签式知识(beer-mat knowledge)、科学的公众理解(popular understanding of science),第一手资料的知识(primary source knowledge)、互动性专门知识(interactional expertise)、贡献性专门知识(coniributory expertise)
⑥ Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press, 2007.7
⑦ Collins, H M. A new programme of research?[J]. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science,2007(4):615-620
⑥ 请参见Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press,2007.15
① 郝宁.专长的获得：刻意训练理论及实证研究[博士论文].上海：华东师范大学,2006.17-23
② 第一种类型是诸如物理学的专门知识,在社会中凭借人人认可的功效具有普遍权威;第二种专门知识在一定群体或信徒中具有合法性,比如神学；第三种专门知识比如健康或心理治疗师,他们有自己的追随者：第四种和第五种专门知识通过专业机构为其提供追随者,比如政府部门成为这种专门知识的专门消费群体
③ Turner,S.What Is the Problem With Experts?[J].Social Studies of Science,2001(1):123-149
① 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.278
② 请参见Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press,2007
① 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.293
② Nichter, M. Vaccinations in the Third World:a consideration of community demand[J]. Social Science and Medicine, 1995(5):617-632
③ Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E. etc. Qualitative analysis of mothers'decision-making about vaccines for infants:The importance of trust. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
④Eng, E., Naimoli, J., Naimoli, G The Acceptability of Childhood Immunization to Togolese Mothers:A Sociobehavioral Perspective[J]. Health Education Quarterly,1991(1):97-110
① 比如孩子生病、天气太热等客观因素会使荷兰的家长愿意但不能带孩子接种疫苗,而对于疫苗接种服务不够或者接种疫苗出现的严重副作用会使这些地区的家长拒绝为孩子接种疫苗,以及质疑接种疫苗的必要性会导致有组织的抵制疫苗接种。请参见Streefland, P H., Chowdhury, A., Ramos-Jimenez, P. Patterns of vaccination acceptance[J]. Social Science and Medicine.1999 (12):1705-1716
② Leask, J., Chapman, S., Hawe, P. etc. What maintains parental support for vaccination when challenged by anti-vaccination messages? A qualitative study[J]. Vaccine,2006 (49-50):7238-7245
③ 张静等.武汉市0-7岁儿童计划免疫现状及影响因素[J].中国公共卫生,2006(1)
④ 傅传喜等.广州市部分地区儿童计划免疫状况及影响因素分析[J].中国全科医学,2008(23)
⑤ 何庚声.甘肃省不同经济状况地区儿童计划免疫接种情况及影响因素分析[J].中国计划免疫,2002(4)
⑥ 王培生.乌鲁木齐市流动儿童预防接种状况及影响因素的调查分析[硕士论文].乌鲁木齐：新疆医科大学,2010
⑦ 郝志平.保德县流动儿童计划免疫现状及其影响因素分析[J].山西医科大学学报,2009(12)
① Salmon, D A., Moulton, L H., Omer, S B. etc. Factors associated with refusal of childhood vaccines among parents of school-aged children:a case-control study[J]. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine,2005 (5):470-476
② Meszaros, J R., Asch D A., Baron J. etc. Cognitive processes and the decisions of some parents to forego pertussis vaccination for their children[J]. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology,1996(6):697-703
③ Rogers, A., Pilgrim, D. The risk of resistance:perspectives on the mass Childhood Immunisation Programme.In: Brown, P. and Gabe, J. Medicine, Health and Risk:Sociological Approaches[M]. Oxford:Wiley Blackwell press, 1995.73-91
④ 即孩子1岁时接种白喉和破伤风的二联疫苗,1岁半时与二联疫苗同时接种一种特殊的灭活百日咳疫苗,2岁时再重复接种一次。详见哈里·柯林斯,特雷弗·平奇.勾勒姆医生：作为科学的医学与作为救助手段的医学[M].上海：上海科技教育出版社,2009
① 陈晓艳,张淑芳.社区儿童家长计划免疫知识认知与需求调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(3)
② 请参见陈晚秋,王虹,邓文娇.儿童母亲预随接种知识的调查[J].医药论坛杂志,2006(22)；周爱庆等.542名儿童家长计划免疫知识现况调查[J].中国校医,2005(1)；陈伟等.儿童家长计划免疫知识认知情况调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(4)
③ 魏宏妮.儿童父母计划免疫知识认知调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2005(7)
④ 请参见王丽娟,郑晓燕.儿童家长计划免疫知识认知现状调查分析[J].社区医学杂志,2009(7)；单芙香等.深圳市儿童家长预防接种知识及其影响因素的分析[J].中国计划免疫,2007(6)
⑤ 岑绮玲等.儿童家长预防接种知识的健康教育效果分析[J].中国妇幼保健,2010(11)
⑥ 赵学军.健康教育在预防接种工作中的应用[J].现代预防医学,2005(4)
⑦ 李永秀.自制预防接种预约单对0～6岁儿童家长接种知识掌握及疫苗接种率的影响[J].实用预防医学,2012(4)
① 孙晓东,赵丽丽,胡家瑜.上海市儿童计划免疫与乙型肝炎疫苗免疫接种率及影响因素调查分析[J].中国计划免疫,2001(5)
② 请参见威廉H.麦克尼尔.瘟疫与人[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2010
③ 请参见梁其姿.面对疾病——传统中国社会的医疗观与组织[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2012.48-95
④ 张大庆.中国近代疾病史(1912—1937)[M].济南：山东教育出版社,2006.17
① 请参见余新忠.清代江南种痘事业探论[J].清史研究,2003(2)；余新忠.清代江南的瘟疫与社会——项医疗社会史的研究[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003。此外,关于种痘术的研究请参见《1522年中国种痘的最早记载及传说考论》(姜生,2008)、《从即毒消灾到种痘免疫——种痘术的发明及传播》(孟庆云,2004)、《康熙皇帝与天花》(胡中良,2003)、《中国人痘接种术向西方的传播及影响》(谢蜀生、张大庆,2000)、《天花的起源、传布、危害与防治》(张箭,2002)、《清初满族预防天花史证》(宋抵,1995)、《种痘术及其中外交流》(刘学礼,1993)、《中国古代的免疫思想和人痘苗的发展》(刘锡琏,1978)
② 甄雪燕.近百年中国传染病流行的主要社会因素研究[博士论文].武汉：华中科技大学,2011
③ 李玉偿.环境与人：江南传染病史研究(1820—1953)[博士论文].上海：复旦大学,2003
④ 刘岸冰.民国时期上海传染病的流行与防治[硕士论文].上海：东华大学,2006
⑤ 高勇.清朝天花的防治与影响[硕士论文].呼和浩特：内蒙古大学,2005。相关研究还见Chia-Feng Chang. Aspectss of Smallpox and Its Significance in Chinese History[PhD Dissertation]. London:University of London,1996：杜家骥.清代天花病之流行、防治及对皇族人口的影响.载李中清、郭松义编.清代皇族的人口行为与社会环境[A],北京：北京大学出版社,1994：155-165
⑥ 杨念群.中国近代防疫体系的演变[J].读书,2003(7)
⑦ 邓铁涛.中国防疫史[M].南宁：广西科学技术出版社,2006
① 谭晓燕.民国时期的防疫政策(1911—1937)[硕士论文],济南：山东大学,2006
② 胡克夫.理性生存价值——近代卫生防疫法移植的历史路径[J].河北学刊,2006(1)
③ 曾芳.二十世纪五十年代湖北省防疫政策与措施[硕士论文].武汉：华中师范大学,2009
① 说明：访谈对话中,如无特殊标明,楷体字表示受访者；()夹注文字为作者附加说明;受访者的名字均为化名
① 太原完善流动人口服务管理创新项目.太原市政法委.2011年08月11日.http://www.sx.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2011-08/11/content_23445349.htm
① 5级管理机构分别是：中国疾病预防控制中心,省、市(地)级疾病预防控制机构,县级疾病预防控制机构,乡级防保组织或接种单位,村级接种单位
② 2010年3月17日,《中国经济时报》记者王克勤发表了2万字的调查报道。他在文中披露,山西从2006年到2008年里因储存管理不当出现了“高温暴露的贴签疫苗”,这些疫苗与山西近百名儿童注射疫苗后或死或残现象很难脱离干系
③ 太原市志.2012年5月8日.http://www.taiyuan.gov.cn/?yy=992
④ 太原市2010年第六次全国人口普查主要数据公报.太原统计信息网.2011年5月3日.http://211.142.23.166/tongjijuWW/news/news.jsp?id=11403
① 山西统计年鉴2011[Z].北京：中国统计出版社,2011
② 太原市儿童疫苗接种率接近100%[N].太原晚报.2011年9月26日.http://sx.people.com.cn/GB/189144/15757955-html
③ “4苗防6病”、“5苗防7病”的具体内容请参见附录A。“7苗防9病”指在“5苗防7病”的基础之上将乙脑疫苗和A群流脑疫苗纳入计划计划免疫管理,疫苗和接种费用均由家长支付
④ “12苗防15病”的具体疫苗种类请参见附录B
⑤ 太原市2010年人口普查资料[Z].太原：太原市统计局出版社,2013
① 威廉 H.麦克尼尔.瘟疫与人[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2010.31,133-135
① 牛津现代高级英汉双解词典[K].北京：商务印书馆,1996.404
② http://xh.5156edu.com/
③ "expertise'(?)一词通常被译为专识、专业技能、专长、专业知识、专门知识等。鉴于本研究中的"expertise"不仅为专家所拥有,公众也具备一定的"expertise",本文采用专门知识这一译法
④ Polanyi, M. The Study of Man[M]. London:Routledge & Kegan Paul,1957.12;在波兰尼那里,显性知识是可以用书面语言、图表或数学公式表达出来的知识
① Collins, H M. Tacit knowledge, trust and the Q of Sapphire[J]. Social Studies of Science,2001,31(1):72=本研究所指称的默会知识即是柯林斯界定的默会知识的意义
② 张帆.科学、知识与行动[博士论文].太原：山西大学,2010.91
③ Fuller, S. The Constitutively Social Character of Expertise. In Selinger, E. and Crease, R P. The Philosophy of Expertise[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2006,342-357
① Bauer, M., Durant, J R., Evans, G. European public perceptions of science:An exploratory study[J]. International Journal of Public Opinion Research,1994(2):163-186
① 柯林斯关于专门知识层次的划分及论述请参见Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,2007.15-18
② 在儿童疫苗接种中,具有疫苗接种领域专业技能知识的医务专业技术人员具有双重身份,一为专业技术人员,二是作为家长,也属于公众的行列。但本研究中除非特殊标明,公众仍然不包括儿童疫苗接种领域的医务专业技术人员
③ 此处的专业技能知识意指赵万里、李艳红所指称的“专业知识”,由此可以得出,科学知识也是专门知识之一。请参见赵万里,李艳红.专家体制与公共决策的技术—政治过程[J].自然辩证法研究,2009(11)
① Selinger, E., Dreyfus, H., Collins, H M. Embodiment and interactional expertise[J]. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science,2007 (4):722-740
② Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press, 2007.30
③ 克劳迪娅·冯·格罗特,迈诺尔夫·迪尔克斯.公众理解科学与技术.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.244
② 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.294
③ Epstein, S. The Construction of Lay Expertise:AIDS Activism and the Forging of Credibility in the Reform of Clinical Trials[J]. Science, Technology, and Human Values,1995(2):408-437
① Noelle-Neumann, E, The spiral of silence[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1984.61
② 汉斯·皮特·皮特斯.从信息到态度?公众的科学和技术知识与公众对技术的态度之间的关系.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.192-193
① 李秀.公众理解科学概念梳理[J].湖北经济学院学报(人文社会科学版),2008(3)
② H.弗雷齐尔.穆尔,弗兰克.B.卡鲁帕.公共关系学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,1990
③ 英国皇家学会.公众理解科学[R].唐英英译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2003；另外,该报告指出,公众理解科学中的科学指广义的“科学”,包括数学、技术、工程和医学,只对自然世界的系统考察以及对由此考察所得知识的是积极运用。由于本研究探讨的是医疗实践,因而在未特别指出时,本文运用科学一词与《公众理解科学》所指一致
④ 全民科学素质行动计划纲要(2006—2010—2020).北京：人民出版社,2006
① 具体研究请参见Arnstein, S. A ladder of citizen participation[J]. American Institute of Planning,1969(4):216-224
② 阿奈克·M·海姆斯塔.研究公众对生物技术的认知.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编,田松等译.在理解与信赖之间[M].北京：北京理T大学出版社,2006.123
③ 库纳特·H·索勒森等.反线性——科学技术的文化转用.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.165-179
④ 关于认知—缺失模型的具体观点请参见本章第三节
① 具体研究请参见Hilgartner, S. The dominant view of popularization:Conceptual problems, political issues[J]. Social Studies of Science,1990(2):519～539; Shinn, T. and Whitley, R. Expository science:Forms and functions of popularization. In Whitley, R. (Managing Eds.), Sociology of the sciences(Vol.9). Dordrecht:Reidel,1985
② Shapin, S. Science and the public. In Olby, R C., Cantor, G N., Christie, J R R. etc. (Eds). Companion to the history of modern science[M]. London:Routledge,1990.991-1007
③ 赵万里,李艳红.专家休制与公共决策的技术—政治过程[J].自然辩证法研究,2009(11)
④ Freidson, E. Professional Powers:a Study in the Institutionalization of formal knowledege[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1986
⑤ Jean-Marc, Levy-Leblond. About misunderstandings about misunderstandings[J]. Public Understanding of Science, 1992(1):17-21
⑥ Dreyfus, H L. How Far is Distance Learning from Education? In Selinger, E. and Crease, R P. The Philosophy of Expertise[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2006.200-208
① 贝宁等的研究基于母亲为孩子接种疫苗的行动和访淡中的态度,将选择疫苗接种的访谈对象分为两大群体,接种疫苗者(vaccinators)和不接种疫苗者(nonvaccinators),其中每个群体又分为两种,接种疫苗分为接受者(accepters)和犹豫接种者(vaccine-hesitant mothers),不接种疫苗者分为延迟接种者(late vaccinators)和拒绝接种者(rejecters).斯彻弗兰德(Streefland, P.)等将儿童疫苗接种区分为完全(full)接种、部分(partial)接种和不(none)接种疫苗三种情形。请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-■ 1541; Streefland, P H., Chowdhury, A., Ramos-Jimenez, P. Patterns of vaccination acceptance[J]. Social Science and Medicine.1999(12):1705-1716
① 请参见Durant, J., Evans, G., Thomas, G. Public understanding of science in Britain:the role medicine in the popular representation of science[J]. Public Understanding of Science,1992(1):161～182; Evans, G. and Durant, J. The relationship between knowledge and attitudes in the public understanding of science in Britain[J]. Public Understanding of Science,1995(4):57-74
② 约翰·杜兰特等.欧洲公众理解科学和技术的两种文化.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.93
③ 埃德纳·F·艾因西德尔.理解公众理解科学与技术中的“公众”.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.147
① 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.294
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① 关于民间预防和治疗疫病的研究请参见杨亚龙,陈仁寿,陶西凯.论中医疫病民间预防[J].辽宁中医药大学学报,2010(6)；杨亚龙.中医疫病的民间防治及其评价研究[硕士论文].南京：南京中医药大学,2010
① 汉斯·皮特·皮特斯.从信息到态度?公众的科学和技术知识与公众对技术的态度之间的关系.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.193-194
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① 李立明主编.流行病学[M].北京：人民卫生出版社,2008.253
② 第一类疫苗和第二类疫苗的具体种类请参见第二章
③ 舒俭德.人用疫苗：回顾与展望[J].中国计划免疫,2000(2)
④ 威廉H.麦克尼尔.瘟疫与人[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2010.32
① 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.450
① 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.451-452
② 孩子打疫苗最关键的15个问题.搜狐健康.2010年4月19日.http://health.sohu.com/20100419/n271604178.shtml
① 鉴于对受访者的保护,此处不注明访谈资料的来源
② 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.175-176
③ 减毒活疫苗与灭活疫苗的优缺点请参见附录G
① 预防接种工作规范.卫生部网站.2005年10月14日.http://www.gov.cn/yjgl/2005-10/14/content_77713.htm
① Osterhaus, A D. and Vanlangendonck, C. Stakeholder dialogue, broadening of support and use of communication: an integrated and integral part of influenza preparedness[J]. Vaccine,2009(45):6390-6391
① Collins, H M. Interactional expertise as a third kind of knowledge[J]. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 2004(3):125-143
① 李永秀.自制预防接种预约单对0-6岁儿童家长接种知识掌握及疫苗接种率的影响[J].实用预防医学,2012(4)
① 史蒂文·耶利.“公众理解科学”中的科学是什么意思?载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.159
② 周爱庆等2005年的调查研究表明,计划免疫知识获得的途径有宣传单、广播、电视、报纸、书籍,其中宣传单和广播电视是主要途径。请参见周爱庆等.542名儿童家长计划免疫知识现况调查[J].中国校医,2005(1)；
② Aaby, P. etc. Vaccinated children get milder measles infection:a community study from Guinea-Bissau[J]. The Journal of Infectious Disease,1986(5):858-863
① 请参见Nichter, M. Vaccinations in the Third World:a consideration of community demand[J]. Social Science and Medicine,1995(5):617-632
① Shawn, D H. and Gold, R. Survey of parents'attitudes to the recommended Haemophilus influence type of vaccine program[J]. Canadian Medical Association Journal,1987(10):1038-1040; Janz N K. and Becker M H. The health belief model:a decade later[J]. Health Education Quarterly,1984(1):1-47
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② Nichter, M. Vaccinations in the Third World:a consideration of community demand[J]. Social Science and Medicine,1995(5):617-632
① 请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① Rogers, A., Pilgrim, D. The risk of resistance:perspectives on the mass Childhood Immunisation Programme. In: Brown, P. and Gabe, J. Medicine, Health and Risk:Sociological Approaches[M]. Oxford:Wiley Blackwell press, 1995.73-91
② Condit, C. Public attitudes and beliefs about genetics[J]. Genomics and Human Genetics,2010(11):339-359
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① 该项目开始于1994年,包括国家和跨国研究。请参见Streefland, P H., Chowdhury, A., Ramos-Jimenez, P. Patterns of vaccination acceptance[J]. Social Science and Medicine.1999 (12):1705-1716
① 陈晚秋等2005年8-12月对深圳市某区845名儿童母亲的调查研究表明,小学及以下文化程度儿童母亲能认知这些疫苗能预防相应传染病未达到40%：只有23.20%能正确区分一类、二类疫苗的种类。陈伟等对天津市初中文化程度占54.32%的儿童父母为的调查研究表明,20%左右的儿童父母表示从未想过要了解接种的各种疫苗所预防的疾病。请参见陈晚秋,王虹,邓文娇.儿童母亲预防接种知识的调查[J].医药论坛杂志,2006(22)：陈伟等.儿童家长计划免疫知识认知情况调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(4)
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① 陈晚秋,工虹,邓文娇.儿童母亲预防接种知识的调查[J].医药论坛杂志,2006(22)
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① 陈晓艳,张淑芳.社区儿童家长计划免疫知识认知与需求调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(3)
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① Jean-Marc, Levy-Leblond. About misunderstandings about misunderstandings[J]. Public Understanding of Science, 1992(1):17-21
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③ 孙晓东,赵丽丽,胡家瑜.上海市儿童计划免疫与乙型肝炎疫苗免疫接种率及影响因素调查分析[J].中国计划免疫,2001(5)
① 刘宽红.公众科学知识价值取向与科学传播模式建构[J].新闻与传播研究,2011(11)
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① 索勒森等认为,驯化策略体现在三个维度：(1)实践的。在实践维度上,驯化需要一种使用模式,人造物品如何被运用?给定知识的实际寓意是什么?(2)象征的。象征的作用是关于意义的生成以及意义、本体和自我的公共表述之间的关系的表征。(3)认知的。认知是关于人造物品的获知,或对新知识的智性转用。请参见库纳特·H·索勒森等.反线性——科学技术的文化转用.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.165-179
② 威廉H.麦克尼尔.瘟疫与人[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2010.译序V
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② Rogers, A., Pilgrim, D. The risk of resistance:perspectives on the mass Childhood Immunisation Programme. In: Brown, P. and Gabe, J. Medicine, Health and Risk:Sociological Approaches[M]. Oxford:Wiley Blackwell press, 1995.73-91
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① 安东尼·吉登斯.现代性的后果[M].田禾译.南京：译林出版社,2011.88
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① 具体内容请参见附录F
② International Conference of Science & Technology Journalists (ICSTJ-TOKYO 2001). Seeking Trends in Science& Technology Journalism for the 21st Century [DB/OL]. http://www.fest.org.za/scicomm/docs/icstj.pdf.2003-06
③ 常虹.2006年沈阳市沈河区预防接种人员现状调查[J].预防医学论坛,2008(4)
① Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
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① 具体内容请参见附录F
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① 国外的同类研究结果与本研究的结果相似。比如,贝宁等研究表明,在美国,对于接种疫苗的母亲和延迟接种疫苗的母亲而言,优先选择的、信赖的是儿科医生的信息源；对于拒绝接种疫苗的母亲而言,则有限选择并信赖的信息源包括顺势疗法或理疗、互联网、书籍和育儿杂志。请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers'Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① 熊晓红,李翠芝,黑映雪.十堰市儿童母亲预防接种知识的调查[J].中国健康教育杂志,2004(1)
② 魏宏妮.儿童父母计划免疫知识认知调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2005(7)
③ Nichter, M. Vaccinations in the Third World:a consideration of community demand[J]. Social Science and Medicine,1995(5):617-632
④ 相关研究请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① 乌尔里希·贝克,安东尼·吉登斯,斯科特·拉什.自反性现代化[M].北京：商务印书馆,2001.111
① 哈里·柯林斯,特雷弗·平奇.雷瑞鹏译.勾勒姆医生：作为科学的医学与作为救助手段的医学[M].上海：上海科技教育出版社,2009.205
① WHO Health policy and the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) in genomics (2010). WHO Web site. Available at: http://www.who.int/genomics/policy/ELSI/en/index.html
② 转引自Salmon, D A. and Omer, S B. Individual freedoms versus collective responsibility:immunization decision-making in the face of occasionally competing values[J]. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology,2006(3):1-3
① Rogers, A., Pilgrim, D. The risk of resistance:perspectives on the mass Childhood Immunisation Programme. In: Brown, P. and Gabe, J. Medicine, Health and Risk:Sociological Approaches[M]. Oxford:Wiley Blackwell press, 1995.73-91
① 史淑芬.我国免疫规划工作现状及发展[J].首都公共卫生,2009(4)
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① 请参见郭燕霞,赵万里.建构主义视角下的医学知识问题研究[J].自然辩证法研究,2012(10)
② 舒俭德.人用疫苗：回顾与展望[J].中国汁划免疫,2000(2)
③ 1974年以来,国外将“4苗防6病”的儿童接种计划称为扩大免疫规划(expanded programme on immunization, EPI)
④ 段大鹏等.2006年各国纳入免疫规划疫苗概况[J].中国计划免疫,2007(3)
⑤ 具体的国家免疫规划政策的演变请参见附录A:中国现行扩大免疫规划疫苗种类请参见附录B
① Salmon, D A., Teret, S P., Maclntyre, C R. etc. Compulsory vaccination and conscientious or philosophical exemptions:past, present, and future[J].The Lancet,2006 (9508):436-442
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① 请参见迈克尔·波兰尼.个人知识—迈向后批判哲学[M].许泽民译,贵阳：贵州人民出版社,2000
② 新手阶段(novice)——初学者阶段(the advanced beginner)——胜任阶段(competence)——熟练阶段(proficiency)——专门知识阶段(expertise)——精通阶段(mastery)——实践智慧阶段(Practical wisdom)
③ Dreyfus, H L. How Far is Distance Learning from Education? In Selinger, E. and Crease, R P. The Philosophy of Expertise[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2006.200-208
④ 请参见张帆.科学、知识与行动[博士论文].太原：山西大学,2010
⑤ 将专业知识划分为5个层次：标签式知识(beer-mat knowledge)、科学的公众理解(popular understanding of science),第一手资料的知识(primary source knowledge)、互动性专门知识(interactional expertise)、贡献性专门知识(coniributory expertise)
⑥ Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press, 2007.7
⑦ Collins, H M. A new programme of research?[J]. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science,2007(4):615-620
⑥ 请参见Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press,2007.15
① 郝宁.专长的获得：刻意训练理论及实证研究[博士论文].上海：华东师范大学,2006.17-23
② 第一种类型是诸如物理学的专门知识,在社会中凭借人人认可的功效具有普遍权威;第二种专门知识在一定群体或信徒中具有合法性,比如神学；第三种专门知识比如健康或心理治疗师,他们有自己的追随者：第四种和第五种专门知识通过专业机构为其提供追随者,比如政府部门成为这种专门知识的专门消费群体
③ Turner,S.What Is the Problem With Experts?[J].Social Studies of Science,2001(1):123-149
① 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.278
② 请参见Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press,2007
① 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.293
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④Eng, E., Naimoli, J., Naimoli, G The Acceptability of Childhood Immunization to Togolese Mothers:A Sociobehavioral Perspective[J]. Health Education Quarterly,1991(1):97-110
① 比如孩子生病、天气太热等客观因素会使荷兰的家长愿意但不能带孩子接种疫苗,而对于疫苗接种服务不够或者接种疫苗出现的严重副作用会使这些地区的家长拒绝为孩子接种疫苗,以及质疑接种疫苗的必要性会导致有组织的抵制疫苗接种。请参见Streefland, P H., Chowdhury, A., Ramos-Jimenez, P. Patterns of vaccination acceptance[J]. Social Science and Medicine.1999 (12):1705-1716
② Leask, J., Chapman, S., Hawe, P. etc. What maintains parental support for vaccination when challenged by anti-vaccination messages? A qualitative study[J]. Vaccine,2006 (49-50):7238-7245
③ 张静等.武汉市0-7岁儿童计划免疫现状及影响因素[J].中国公共卫生,2006(1)
④ 傅传喜等.广州市部分地区儿童计划免疫状况及影响因素分析[J].中国全科医学,2008(23)
⑤ 何庚声.甘肃省不同经济状况地区儿童计划免疫接种情况及影响因素分析[J].中国计划免疫,2002(4)
⑥ 王培生.乌鲁木齐市流动儿童预防接种状况及影响因素的调查分析[硕士论文].乌鲁木齐：新疆医科大学,2010
⑦ 郝志平.保德县流动儿童计划免疫现状及其影响因素分析[J].山西医科大学学报,2009(12)
① Salmon, D A., Moulton, L H., Omer, S B. etc. Factors associated with refusal of childhood vaccines among parents of school-aged children:a case-control study[J]. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine,2005 (5):470-476
② Meszaros, J R., Asch D A., Baron J. etc. Cognitive processes and the decisions of some parents to forego pertussis vaccination for their children[J]. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology,1996(6):697-703
③ Rogers, A., Pilgrim, D. The risk of resistance:perspectives on the mass Childhood Immunisation Programme.In: Brown, P. and Gabe, J. Medicine, Health and Risk:Sociological Approaches[M]. Oxford:Wiley Blackwell press, 1995.73-91
④ 即孩子1岁时接种白喉和破伤风的二联疫苗,1岁半时与二联疫苗同时接种一种特殊的灭活百日咳疫苗,2岁时再重复接种一次。详见哈里·柯林斯,特雷弗·平奇.勾勒姆医生：作为科学的医学与作为救助手段的医学[M].上海：上海科技教育出版社,2009
① 陈晓艳,张淑芳.社区儿童家长计划免疫知识认知与需求调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(3)
② 请参见陈晚秋,王虹,邓文娇.儿童母亲预随接种知识的调查[J].医药论坛杂志,2006(22)；周爱庆等.542名儿童家长计划免疫知识现况调查[J].中国校医,2005(1)；陈伟等.儿童家长计划免疫知识认知情况调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(4)
③ 魏宏妮.儿童父母计划免疫知识认知调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2005(7)
④ 请参见王丽娟,郑晓燕.儿童家长计划免疫知识认知现状调查分析[J].社区医学杂志,2009(7)；单芙香等.深圳市儿童家长预防接种知识及其影响因素的分析[J].中国计划免疫,2007(6)
⑤ 岑绮玲等.儿童家长预防接种知识的健康教育效果分析[J].中国妇幼保健,2010(11)
⑥ 赵学军.健康教育在预防接种工作中的应用[J].现代预防医学,2005(4)
⑦ 李永秀.自制预防接种预约单对0～6岁儿童家长接种知识掌握及疫苗接种率的影响[J].实用预防医学,2012(4)
① 孙晓东,赵丽丽,胡家瑜.上海市儿童计划免疫与乙型肝炎疫苗免疫接种率及影响因素调查分析[J].中国计划免疫,2001(5)
② 请参见威廉H.麦克尼尔.瘟疫与人[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2010
③ 请参见梁其姿.面对疾病——传统中国社会的医疗观与组织[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2012.48-95
④ 张大庆.中国近代疾病史(1912—1937)[M].济南：山东教育出版社,2006.17
① 请参见余新忠.清代江南种痘事业探论[J].清史研究,2003(2)；余新忠.清代江南的瘟疫与社会——项医疗社会史的研究[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003。此外,关于种痘术的研究请参见《1522年中国种痘的最早记载及传说考论》(姜生,2008)、《从即毒消灾到种痘免疫——种痘术的发明及传播》(孟庆云,2004)、《康熙皇帝与天花》(胡中良,2003)、《中国人痘接种术向西方的传播及影响》(谢蜀生、张大庆,2000)、《天花的起源、传布、危害与防治》(张箭,2002)、《清初满族预防天花史证》(宋抵,1995)、《种痘术及其中外交流》(刘学礼,1993)、《中国古代的免疫思想和人痘苗的发展》(刘锡琏,1978)
② 甄雪燕.近百年中国传染病流行的主要社会因素研究[博士论文].武汉：华中科技大学,2011
③ 李玉偿.环境与人：江南传染病史研究(1820—1953)[博士论文].上海：复旦大学,2003
④ 刘岸冰.民国时期上海传染病的流行与防治[硕士论文].上海：东华大学,2006
⑤ 高勇.清朝天花的防治与影响[硕士论文].呼和浩特：内蒙古大学,2005。相关研究还见Chia-Feng Chang. Aspectss of Smallpox and Its Significance in Chinese History[PhD Dissertation]. London:University of London,1996：杜家骥.清代天花病之流行、防治及对皇族人口的影响.载李中清、郭松义编.清代皇族的人口行为与社会环境[A],北京：北京大学出版社,1994：155-165
⑥ 杨念群.中国近代防疫体系的演变[J].读书,2003(7)
⑦ 邓铁涛.中国防疫史[M].南宁：广西科学技术出版社,2006
① 谭晓燕.民国时期的防疫政策(1911—1937)[硕士论文],济南：山东大学,2006
② 胡克夫.理性生存价值——近代卫生防疫法移植的历史路径[J].河北学刊,2006(1)
③ 曾芳.二十世纪五十年代湖北省防疫政策与措施[硕士论文].武汉：华中师范大学,2009
① 说明：访谈对话中,如无特殊标明,楷体字表示受访者；()夹注文字为作者附加说明;受访者的名字均为化名
① 太原完善流动人口服务管理创新项目.太原市政法委.2011年08月11日.http://www.sx.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2011-08/11/content_23445349.htm
① 5级管理机构分别是：中国疾病预防控制中心,省、市(地)级疾病预防控制机构,县级疾病预防控制机构,乡级防保组织或接种单位,村级接种单位
② 2010年3月17日,《中国经济时报》记者王克勤发表了2万字的调查报道。他在文中披露,山西从2006年到2008年里因储存管理不当出现了“高温暴露的贴签疫苗”,这些疫苗与山西近百名儿童注射疫苗后或死或残现象很难脱离干系
③ 太原市志.2012年5月8日.http://www.taiyuan.gov.cn/?yy=992
④ 太原市2010年第六次全国人口普查主要数据公报.太原统计信息网.2011年5月3日.http://211.142.23.166/tongjijuWW/news/news.jsp?id=11403
① 山西统计年鉴2011[Z].北京：中国统计出版社,2011
② 太原市儿童疫苗接种率接近100%[N].太原晚报.2011年9月26日.http://sx.people.com.cn/GB/189144/15757955-html
③ “4苗防6病”、“5苗防7病”的具体内容请参见附录A。“7苗防9病”指在“5苗防7病”的基础之上将乙脑疫苗和A群流脑疫苗纳入计划计划免疫管理,疫苗和接种费用均由家长支付
④ “12苗防15病”的具体疫苗种类请参见附录B
⑤ 太原市2010年人口普查资料[Z].太原：太原市统计局出版社,2013
① 威廉 H.麦克尼尔.瘟疫与人[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2010.31,133-135
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② http://xh.5156edu.com/
③ "expertise'(?)一词通常被译为专识、专业技能、专长、专业知识、专门知识等。鉴于本研究中的"expertise"不仅为专家所拥有,公众也具备一定的"expertise",本文采用专门知识这一译法
④ Polanyi, M. The Study of Man[M]. London:Routledge & Kegan Paul,1957.12;在波兰尼那里,显性知识是可以用书面语言、图表或数学公式表达出来的知识
① Collins, H M. Tacit knowledge, trust and the Q of Sapphire[J]. Social Studies of Science,2001,31(1):72=本研究所指称的默会知识即是柯林斯界定的默会知识的意义
② 张帆.科学、知识与行动[博士论文].太原：山西大学,2010.91
③ Fuller, S. The Constitutively Social Character of Expertise. In Selinger, E. and Crease, R P. The Philosophy of Expertise[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2006,342-357
① Bauer, M., Durant, J R., Evans, G. European public perceptions of science:An exploratory study[J]. International Journal of Public Opinion Research,1994(2):163-186
① 柯林斯关于专门知识层次的划分及论述请参见Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,2007.15-18
② 在儿童疫苗接种中,具有疫苗接种领域专业技能知识的医务专业技术人员具有双重身份,一为专业技术人员,二是作为家长,也属于公众的行列。但本研究中除非特殊标明,公众仍然不包括儿童疫苗接种领域的医务专业技术人员
③ 此处的专业技能知识意指赵万里、李艳红所指称的“专业知识”,由此可以得出,科学知识也是专门知识之一。请参见赵万里,李艳红.专家体制与公共决策的技术—政治过程[J].自然辩证法研究,2009(11)
① Selinger, E., Dreyfus, H., Collins, H M. Embodiment and interactional expertise[J]. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science,2007 (4):722-740
② Collins, H M. and Evans, R J. Rethinking expertise[M]. Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press, 2007.30
③ 克劳迪娅·冯·格罗特,迈诺尔夫·迪尔克斯.公众理解科学与技术.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.244
② 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.294
③ Epstein, S. The Construction of Lay Expertise:AIDS Activism and the Forging of Credibility in the Reform of Clinical Trials[J]. Science, Technology, and Human Values,1995(2):408-437
① Noelle-Neumann, E, The spiral of silence[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1984.61
② 汉斯·皮特·皮特斯.从信息到态度?公众的科学和技术知识与公众对技术的态度之间的关系.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.192-193
① 李秀.公众理解科学概念梳理[J].湖北经济学院学报(人文社会科学版),2008(3)
② H.弗雷齐尔.穆尔,弗兰克.B.卡鲁帕.公共关系学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,1990
③ 英国皇家学会.公众理解科学[R].唐英英译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2003；另外,该报告指出,公众理解科学中的科学指广义的“科学”,包括数学、技术、工程和医学,只对自然世界的系统考察以及对由此考察所得知识的是积极运用。由于本研究探讨的是医疗实践,因而在未特别指出时,本文运用科学一词与《公众理解科学》所指一致
④ 全民科学素质行动计划纲要(2006—2010—2020).北京：人民出版社,2006
① 具体研究请参见Arnstein, S. A ladder of citizen participation[J]. American Institute of Planning,1969(4):216-224
② 阿奈克·M·海姆斯塔.研究公众对生物技术的认知.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编,田松等译.在理解与信赖之间[M].北京：北京理T大学出版社,2006.123
③ 库纳特·H·索勒森等.反线性——科学技术的文化转用.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.165-179
④ 关于认知—缺失模型的具体观点请参见本章第三节
① 具体研究请参见Hilgartner, S. The dominant view of popularization:Conceptual problems, political issues[J]. Social Studies of Science,1990(2):519～539; Shinn, T. and Whitley, R. Expository science:Forms and functions of popularization. In Whitley, R. (Managing Eds.), Sociology of the sciences(Vol.9). Dordrecht:Reidel,1985
② Shapin, S. Science and the public. In Olby, R C., Cantor, G N., Christie, J R R. etc. (Eds). Companion to the history of modern science[M]. London:Routledge,1990.991-1007
③ 赵万里,李艳红.专家休制与公共决策的技术—政治过程[J].自然辩证法研究,2009(11)
④ Freidson, E. Professional Powers:a Study in the Institutionalization of formal knowledege[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1986
⑤ Jean-Marc, Levy-Leblond. About misunderstandings about misunderstandings[J]. Public Understanding of Science, 1992(1):17-21
⑥ Dreyfus, H L. How Far is Distance Learning from Education? In Selinger, E. and Crease, R P. The Philosophy of Expertise[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2006.200-208
① 贝宁等的研究基于母亲为孩子接种疫苗的行动和访淡中的态度,将选择疫苗接种的访谈对象分为两大群体,接种疫苗者(vaccinators)和不接种疫苗者(nonvaccinators),其中每个群体又分为两种,接种疫苗分为接受者(accepters)和犹豫接种者(vaccine-hesitant mothers),不接种疫苗者分为延迟接种者(late vaccinators)和拒绝接种者(rejecters).斯彻弗兰德(Streefland, P.)等将儿童疫苗接种区分为完全(full)接种、部分(partial)接种和不(none)接种疫苗三种情形。请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-■ 1541; Streefland, P H., Chowdhury, A., Ramos-Jimenez, P. Patterns of vaccination acceptance[J]. Social Science and Medicine.1999(12):1705-1716
① 请参见Durant, J., Evans, G., Thomas, G. Public understanding of science in Britain:the role medicine in the popular representation of science[J]. Public Understanding of Science,1992(1):161～182; Evans, G. and Durant, J. The relationship between knowledge and attitudes in the public understanding of science in Britain[J]. Public Understanding of Science,1995(4):57-74
② 约翰·杜兰特等.欧洲公众理解科学和技术的两种文化.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.93
③ 埃德纳·F·艾因西德尔.理解公众理解科学与技术中的“公众”.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.147
① 布赖恩·温内.公众理解科学.载希拉·贾撒诺,杰拉德·马克尔,詹姆斯·彼得森等,主编.科学技术论手册[M].盛晓明等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2004.294
② Otway, H. The perception of technological risks:a psychological perspective. In Dierkes, M., Edwards, S., Coppock, R. Technological risk:its perception and handling in the European Community[M]. Cambridge, MA:Oelgeschlager, Cunn & Hain,1980.35-44
③ 请参见Nowotny, H. Socially distributed knowledge:five spaces for science to meet the public[J]. Public Understanding of Science,1993(2):307-319
① Hennen, L. Science and technology under discussion:Technology impact assessment and public controversies over technology.转引自克劳迪娅·冯·格罗特,迈诺尔夫.迪尔克斯.公众理解科学与技术.‘载于迪尔克斯,冯.格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.249
② Einsiede, E F. Publics and Vaccinomics:Beyond Public Understanding of Science[J]. Journal of Integrative Biology, 2011(9):607-614
① 关于民间预防和治疗疫病的研究请参见杨亚龙,陈仁寿,陶西凯.论中医疫病民间预防[J].辽宁中医药大学学报,2010(6)；杨亚龙.中医疫病的民间防治及其评价研究[硕士论文].南京：南京中医药大学,2010
① 汉斯·皮特·皮特斯.从信息到态度?公众的科学和技术知识与公众对技术的态度之间的关系.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.193-194
① Po-Po, L., Chambers, L W., MacDougall, P. etc. Seasonal influenza vaccination campaigns for health care personnel: a systematic review[J]. Canadian Medical Association Journal,2010(12):E542-E548
② Hollmeyer, H G., Hayden, F., Poland, G. etc. Influenza vaccination of health care workers in hospitals—a review of studies on attitudes and predictors[J]. Vaccine,2009(30):3935-3944
③ Gilbert, G L., Kerridge, I., Cheung, P. Mandatory influenza immunisation of health-care workers[J]. The Lancet Infectious Diseases,2010(1):3-5
① 李立明主编.流行病学[M].北京：人民卫生出版社,2008.253
② 第一类疫苗和第二类疫苗的具体种类请参见第二章
③ 舒俭德.人用疫苗：回顾与展望[J].中国计划免疫,2000(2)
④ 威廉H.麦克尼尔.瘟疫与人[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2010.32
① 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.450
① 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.451-452
② 孩子打疫苗最关键的15个问题.搜狐健康.2010年4月19日.http://health.sohu.com/20100419/n271604178.shtml
① 鉴于对受访者的保护,此处不注明访谈资料的来源
② 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.175-176
③ 减毒活疫苗与灭活疫苗的优缺点请参见附录G
① 预防接种工作规范.卫生部网站.2005年10月14日.http://www.gov.cn/yjgl/2005-10/14/content_77713.htm
① Osterhaus, A D. and Vanlangendonck, C. Stakeholder dialogue, broadening of support and use of communication: an integrated and integral part of influenza preparedness[J]. Vaccine,2009(45):6390-6391
① Collins, H M. Interactional expertise as a third kind of knowledge[J]. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 2004(3):125-143
① 李永秀.自制预防接种预约单对0-6岁儿童家长接种知识掌握及疫苗接种率的影响[J].实用预防医学,2012(4)
① 史蒂文·耶利.“公众理解科学”中的科学是什么意思?载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.159
② 周爱庆等2005年的调查研究表明,计划免疫知识获得的途径有宣传单、广播、电视、报纸、书籍,其中宣传单和广播电视是主要途径。请参见周爱庆等.542名儿童家长计划免疫知识现况调查[J].中国校医,2005(1)；
② Aaby, P. etc. Vaccinated children get milder measles infection:a community study from Guinea-Bissau[J]. The Journal of Infectious Disease,1986(5):858-863
① 请参见Nichter, M. Vaccinations in the Third World:a consideration of community demand[J]. Social Science and Medicine,1995(5):617-632
① Shawn, D H. and Gold, R. Survey of parents'attitudes to the recommended Haemophilus influence type of vaccine program[J]. Canadian Medical Association Journal,1987(10):1038-1040; Janz N K. and Becker M H. The health belief model:a decade later[J]. Health Education Quarterly,1984(1):1-47
① Gaskell, G., Einsiedel, E., Hallman, W. Social values and the governance of science[J]. Science,2005(5756): 1908-1909
② Nichter, M. Vaccinations in the Third World:a consideration of community demand[J]. Social Science and Medicine,1995(5):617-632
① 请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① Rogers, A., Pilgrim, D. The risk of resistance:perspectives on the mass Childhood Immunisation Programme. In: Brown, P. and Gabe, J. Medicine, Health and Risk:Sociological Approaches[M]. Oxford:Wiley Blackwell press, 1995.73-91
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① 该项目开始于1994年,包括国家和跨国研究。请参见Streefland, P H., Chowdhury, A., Ramos-Jimenez, P. Patterns of vaccination acceptance[J]. Social Science and Medicine.1999 (12):1705-1716
① 陈晚秋等2005年8-12月对深圳市某区845名儿童母亲的调查研究表明,小学及以下文化程度儿童母亲能认知这些疫苗能预防相应传染病未达到40%：只有23.20%能正确区分一类、二类疫苗的种类。陈伟等对天津市初中文化程度占54.32%的儿童父母为的调查研究表明,20%左右的儿童父母表示从未想过要了解接种的各种疫苗所预防的疾病。请参见陈晚秋,王虹,邓文娇.儿童母亲预防接种知识的调查[J].医药论坛杂志,2006(22)：陈伟等.儿童家长计划免疫知识认知情况调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(4)
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① Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E. etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers'Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① 陈晚秋,工虹,邓文娇.儿童母亲预防接种知识的调查[J].医药论坛杂志,2006(22)
① Wynne, B. Misunderstood misunderstanding:social identities and public uptake of science[J]. Public Understand of Science,1992(1):281-304
① 陈晓艳,张淑芳.社区儿童家长计划免疫知识认知与需求调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(3)
② 陈伟等.儿童家长计划免疫知识认知情况调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2008(4)
① Jean-Marc, Levy-Leblond. About misunderstandings about misunderstandings[J]. Public Understanding of Science, 1992(1):17-21
② Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E. etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
③ 孙晓东,赵丽丽,胡家瑜.上海市儿童计划免疫与乙型肝炎疫苗免疫接种率及影响因素调查分析[J].中国计划免疫,2001(5)
① 刘宽红.公众科学知识价值取向与科学传播模式建构[J].新闻与传播研究,2011(11)
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③ 李正伟.缺失模型与我国的科学传播发展趋势.载于科技文化与社会现代化研究之三.299
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① 请参见Brown, P. and Gabe, J. Medicine, Health and Risk:Sociological Approaches[M]. Oxford:Wiley Blackwell press,1995
② Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① 索勒森等认为,驯化策略体现在三个维度：(1)实践的。在实践维度上,驯化需要一种使用模式,人造物品如何被运用?给定知识的实际寓意是什么?(2)象征的。象征的作用是关于意义的生成以及意义、本体和自我的公共表述之间的关系的表征。(3)认知的。认知是关于人造物品的获知,或对新知识的智性转用。请参见库纳特·H·索勒森等.反线性——科学技术的文化转用.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.165-179
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① 具体内容请参见附录F
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① 具体内容请参见附录F
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③ 马健.危机事件中的科学传播[J].科学学研究,2008(3)
① Mazur, A. Bias in risk-benefit analysis[J]. Technology in Society,1985(7):25-30
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② Hershey, J C., Asch D A., Thumasathit T. etc. The roles of altruism, free-riding, and bandwagoning in vaccination decisions[J]. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.1994(2):177-187
① Nabarro D. After 1990:The Politics of EPI. Paper presented at the 15th NCIH International Health Conference, 1988,5.19-22
① 阿奈克·M·海姆斯塔.研究公众对生物技术的认知.载于迪尔克斯,冯·格罗特主编.在理解与信赖之间[M].田松等译.北京：北京理工大学出版社,2006.136
② 请参见Olsen, L A. and Huckin, T N. Principles of Communication for Science and Technology[M]. Mcgraw-Hill Book Company,1983
① 安东尼·吉登斯.现代性的后果[M].田禾译.南京：译林出版社,2011.79
① 国外的同类研究结果与本研究的结果相似。比如,贝宁等研究表明,在美国,对于接种疫苗的母亲和延迟接种疫苗的母亲而言,优先选择的、信赖的是儿科医生的信息源；对于拒绝接种疫苗的母亲而言,则有限选择并信赖的信息源包括顺势疗法或理疗、互联网、书籍和育儿杂志。请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers'Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① 熊晓红,李翠芝,黑映雪.十堰市儿童母亲预防接种知识的调查[J].中国健康教育杂志,2004(1)
② 魏宏妮.儿童父母计划免疫知识认知调查[J].中国妇幼保健,2005(7)
③ Nichter, M. Vaccinations in the Third World:a consideration of community demand[J]. Social Science and Medicine,1995(5):617-632
④ 相关研究请参见Benin, A L., Wisler-Scher, D J., Colson, E.etc. Qualitative Analysis of Mothers' Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants:The Importance of Trust[J]. Pediatrics,2006(5):1532-1541
① 乌尔里希·贝克,安东尼·吉登斯,斯科特·拉什.自反性现代化[M].北京：商务印书馆,2001.111
① 哈里·柯林斯,特雷弗·平奇.雷瑞鹏译.勾勒姆医生：作为科学的医学与作为救助手段的医学[M].上海：上海科技教育出版社,2009.205
① WHO Health policy and the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) in genomics (2010). WHO Web site. Available at: http://www.who.int/genomics/policy/ELSI/en/index.html
② 转引自Salmon, D A. and Omer, S B. Individual freedoms versus collective responsibility:immunization decision-making in the face of occasionally competing values[J]. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology,2006(3):1-3
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① 史淑芬.我国免疫规划工作现状及发展[J].首都公共卫生,2009(4)
① 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.176
① 陈正仁.免疫预防传染病[M].北京：北京出版社,1985.204-215
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