海南黑冠长臂猿的生态学及行为特征
摘要
海南黑冠长臂猿是目前世界上最为濒危的灵长类物种,由于近几十年来人类活动的影响,使其种群数量急剧衰退、栖息地面积也急剧缩小。在过去的近47年历史里,只有对这个濒危物种进行了极为有限的研究。因此从2002年8月至2008年的8月,我们在霸王岭国家级自然保护区(19°02′-19°08′N,109°02′-109°13′E)对两群海南黑冠长臂猿进行了野外研究,收集了有关于海南黑冠长臂猿的基本生态学信息:其分类地位、种群数量、食物组成、栖息地植被结构、栖息地选择和利用、繁殖行为、同种间关系、与同域其他物种间的关系等数据,对海南黑冠长臂猿的致危因素做了一个简单的探讨,希望能够为了解这一濒危物种的较为全面的生态信息和如何保护这一濒危物种提供科学合理的建议和依据。
本研究获得主要结果如下:
1.海南黑冠长臂猿的分类地位:通过对其鸣叫声、成年雌雄性个体外部形态特征及部分解剖学特征,以及传统认为是其下一个亚种的东部黑冠长臂猿进行了全面的比较,并辅之以其他学者在分子生物学上的证据,认为应该赋予海南黑冠长臂猿独立种的分类地位,这样有助于对这个濒危物种开展更为有效的保护。
2.海南黑冠长臂猿的历史变迁:通过调查与观测,发现海南黑冠长臂猿之已处于濒危状态,50年内丧失了其99.4%的栖息地,种群数量急剧下降;2008年海南黑冠长臂猿的种群数量只有2个家庭群和5只独猿共20只,并生活在一个面积极小的热带原始林内。长臂猿濒危的原因是由于其栖息地的大规模丧失及人为的猎杀所造成的,海南岛上的原始森林覆盖率由2000年前的95.5%下降到了1999年的4%,而岛上人口则剧增了330%。
3.霸王岭海南黑冠长臂猿种群数量特征:通过研究,霸王岭国家级自然保护区的海南黑冠长臂猿同分布于岛内其他地区的同伴的一样,也经历了种群数量急剧下降的这样一个阶段,但即使在建立保护区之后,该物种的种群数量恢复的速度极为缓慢,并且近20年的时间里,没有见到有新的家庭群的建立,而原来所记录的家庭群却消失了两个。目前活动于栖息地内的独猿的组成是三雄二雌。
4.海南黑冠长臂猿栖息地植被结构分析:霸王岭现存的海南黑冠长臂猿的栖息地的植物群落总体上是热带落叶阔叶季雨林,并表现出一定的垂直地带性分布,海南黑冠长臂猿现在所活动的地方的植被类型应该是热带山地常绿林;其植物组成中,有着非常明显的优势种群,并且可以划分出五个植物群系。海南黑冠长臂猿的主要栖息地在海拔800-1000 m的沟谷,即生物多样性指数最高的地方;该范围内的主成分多为长臂猿喜食植物。
5.海南黑冠长臂猿的食物组成:海南黑冠长臂猿摄食植物隶属49科77属122种,雨季摄食植物有36科53属83种,其中乔木占83.1%,藤本占15.7%,草本占1.2%,食物组成中果实占90.4%-91.6%,嫩叶占7.2%-8.4%,花占1.2%。显示海南黑冠长臂猿的食物组成与其他种类长臂猿有很大差别,尤其是榕属植物,海南黑冠长臂猿采食的榕属植物种数较少。海南黑冠长臂猿主要食物隶属桑科、桃金娘科、番荔枝科、樟科、大戟科、杜英科等。旱季(1-6月)摄食植物隶属31科64种,其中乔木占79.7%,藤本占15.6%,草本占4.7%,旱季食物组成中果实占77.9-82.8%,嫩叶占17.6.18.8%,花占4.4-4.7%。
6.海南黑冠长臂猿对于栖息地的选择和利用:海南黑冠长臂猿主要选择栖息地内海拔800-900 m地段进行活动,该处的植物群落中的生物多样性指数最高,对地形因素中的坡度和坡向没有表现出选择性,海南黑冠长臂猿栖息地的海拔高度应该在中低地的雨林条件下更为合适。海南黑冠长臂猿A群的家域面积是978hm~2,B群的家域面积是584 hm~2。海南黑冠长臂猿的日移动距离在旱季和雨季有着明显的差异,旱季的移动距离要大于雨季的移动距离。同时,海南黑冠长臂猿喜欢选择高大乔木作为移动和休息的场所。
7.海南黑冠长臂猿的繁殖行为:海南黑冠长臂猿的交配行为是由雌性成年个体发起的,每一次交配行为的持续时间非常短,并且交配次数可以从1次到9次不等;交配姿势为爬胯式。雌性成年个体在怀孕期间也可以发生交配行为。同时,长臂猿孕期至少为173天,长臂猿出生后必须要到1岁半的时候才能完全离开母体独自活动。另外,海南黑冠长臂猿的生殖间隔是两年,生育高峰期应该是在每一年的雨季。现存的海南黑冠长臂猿的社会结构是一夫二妻制的。
8.海南黑冠长臂猿同种相遇的行为:现存的两群海南长臂猿之间的相遇行为不同于其它长臂猿,在海南长臂猿的相遇行为中,我们只观察到了雌雄性成年个体和雄性亚成体以及青年雄性个体之间的鸣叫和追逐行为,而没有发现的两群体成员间的玩耍和理毛行为,更没有偷情行为和激烈打斗行为的存在,即只存在着鸣叫行为和竞争性行为。同时,海南长臂猿相遇的持续时间也不像其它种类的长臂猿那样长,只有24-51分钟。另外,也没有发生打斗行为。对于海南长臂猿雌雄性成年个体在群体相遇时的行为,它们对其领域的保护,而未成年个体则是通过参与这种追逐方式学习如何保护自己今后的领域。
9.海南黑冠长臂猿与同域其他物种相遇的行为:野外观察海南长臂猿对于非同种物种相遇时的一系列反应,包括非人类捕食者、人类捕食者和相同生态位竞争种类。在遇到人类观察者后,根据观察距离远近的不同,以及观察次数和时间的不断增加,海南黑冠长臂猿对于人类的反应也随之不同;同时,携带有幼猿的母猿在遇到观察者时的反应随着幼猿的年纪的不断长大也有所不同。海南长臂猿与相同生态位竞争种相遇时,都被雄性海南长臂猿,尤其是青年雄性个体驱赶出它们的采食区域。海南长臂猿无论是在遇到捕食者还是食物竞争种类时,雄性成年个体起着保护家族群成员和保护资源的主要作用。
10.海南长臂猿的声讯行为:海南黑冠长臂猿的声音结构不同于任何一种长臂猿,是长臂猿中最为简单的鸣叫声,据此海南黑冠长臂猿应该是长臂猿科中原始的种类。它们的鸣叫声据不同的生态学意义可以划分为以下五种类型:1)领域性宣告;2)召唤性鸣叫;3)成年雌雄性各自的独唱;4)预警性叫声;5)示威性叫声。
海南黑冠长臂猿是一个极危独立种,通过运用GIS技术分析灵长类动物对栖息地的选择和利用,发现了长臂猿对于栖息地资源利用的重复性,还发现了灵长类动物有可能为了避免资源的竞争,对其出生的后代进行了性别选择。据此,揭示了海南黑冠长臂猿的关键致危因素是:栖息地的破坏和人为的捕猎。恢复和改善海南黑冠长臂猿的栖息条件是保护这一濒危物种的首要之举。
Hainan gibbon is the most endangered primates' species in the world now.Because the disturbance of human beings decades,the population of Hainan gibbon declined rapidly,meanwhile,the habitat shrinking continued.As so far,there was a few ecological information or data we knew.During the past four decades,only a few studies on this endangered species were conducted.We conducted the field research on this endangered species in Bawangling National Nature Reserve from August 2002 to September 2007,collected the basic ecological data of this species,such as:the taxonomy,population dynamic,food composition,the vegetation structure of habitat, and how this species selected and used the habitat,reproduction behavior,the relationship between the inter-group encounters of gibbon and the relationship between the gibbon and the other sympatric species.We hope can learn the comprehensive ecological information and provide the scientific suggestions and practice on the surviving of this endangered species.
The main results were as followings:
1.The taxonomy of Hainan gibbon:The taxonomic status of two crested gibbon taxa - Nomascus sp.cf.nasutus hainanus from Hainan Island,China and Nomascus sp. cf.nasutus from northeast Vietnam is clarified by compared the vocal behavior and the morphology of the two gibbons.The Hainan gibbon,also distributed to east of the Red River,was historically assigned to one species,N.concolor,and have only recently been recognized as one subspecies of the Eastern black crested gibbon N.sp. cf.nasutus.The study,based on their vocal and pelage differences,and the molecular evidence additional,shows that they are distinctive,and herein revalidate the Hainan endemic taxa as Nomascus hainanus and independent species,and deserve the most urgent conservation efforts.
2.The historical changes on Halnan gibbon:Census data show that populations of the species used to occur across the whole island,but in 2008 only 20 individuals could be found,confined to a small region,the Bawangling Natural Reserve(19°02′-19°08′N and 109°02′-109°13′E),in the western part of the island,covering only 14-16 km~2.In other words,about 99%of the habitat has vanished in the past 300 years.Such dramatic change has pushed the species to the edge of extinction;Total 20 individuals included only 2 groups and 5 solitary adult males,remained in 2008.The dramatic decline in the gibbon population has occurred due to vegetation reduction, ecological deterioration and extensive human impact.The forest cover was reduced from 95.5%2000 years ago to just 4%in 1999;and the human population in 2003 was 330%larger than in 1950.
3.The population character of Hainan gibbon in Bawangling National Nature Reserve:The population of Hainan gibbon which distributed in Bawangling area was same as the other distributed areas in Hainan Island,also experienced the rapid decline at the same time.According the filed study,there are 20 individuals lived in Bawangling now,but the population restoration speed is very slowly,and the saddest thing is no new family group had been set up for a decade years.There are 5 solitary gibbons also lived in Bawangling,the composition is 3 adult males and 2 adult females.
4.The vegetation structure of the habitat of Hainan gibbon:The vegetation was the tropical monsoon defoliation forest,and showed the vertical zonal distribution.The vegetation structure selected by Hainan gibbon belonged to mountainous ever green forest,and there were dominant species group among the vegetation composition, which could be divided into five plant formation.It showed that the highest biodiversity index is in the valley of 900-1000 m;meanwhile,there were the most principle component of plant species were eaten by Hainan gibbons.
5.The food composition of Hainan gibbon:The total plants species are 122 species,72 genus and 49 families which eaten by the Hainan gibbons,there were 83 species 53 genus and 36 families belong to the rain season foods of Hainan gibbons, the ratio of arbors is 83.1%,the vines are 15.7%and the herbs are 1.2%.The percentage of fruits is from 90.4%to 91.6%,and the young leaves are from 7.2%to 8.4%,the flowers are 1.2%.There are great differences of the food compositions among the Hainan gibbon and the other gibbon species,especially for the ficus fruit. The mainly plant families are Moraceae,Myrtaceae,Annonaceae,Lauraceae, Euphorblaceae,Elaeocarpaceae and so on,which eaten by Hainan gibbon.There were 64 species 31 families plants were recorded,which were eaten by Hainan black-crested gibbon(N.hainanus) in dry season.The life form of the food plants could be divided into arbor(79.7%),vine(15.6%) and herb(4.7%),the components of the dry season were fruits(77.9-82.8%),young leave(17.6-18.8%) and flowers (4.4-4.7%).
6.The selective and utilize on habitat of Hainan gibbon:Hainan gibbon utilized the middle and low area is more suitable habitat for this species,they just utilized the 800-1000 m channels frequently in their current habitat,where diversity and density of fruiting trees is greatest.They did not show the selective on the slope direction and the gradient,and the lowland forests may be the suitable habitat.The home range area of Hainan gibbon is very bigger than the other gibbon species,group A was estimated to be 978 ha,group B was estimated to be 584 ha,this related with the food resource distributed in the habitat unevenly.The ranging distance of Hainan gibbon had a obvious difference between the wet and dry season,the distance in dry season was longer than the wet season's,this may be explained by Hainan gibbon was depend on the fruit as their main food,the observation also testified this point.It showed Hainan gibbon also likes select the higher arbor as their rest and move location.
7.The reproductive behavior of Hainan gibbon:Receptive females initiated courtship displays.Copulatory pattems involved the male mounting dorso-ventrally from above and behind.Multiple intromissions with thrusting were brief,lasting＜10 s per copulation.We also observed post-conception proceptivity and copulations in sexually active females.It estimated the gestation period to be 173 d at least.Infants became independent at 1.5 year.The inter-birth interval is ca.24 too.It also suggested that mating activities peak in the rainy season.The Hainan gibbons are polygynous, with a 1 male-2 females mating system.
8.Responses to inter-group encounters of the Hainan Gibbon:It showed there were two kinds behavior occurred the encounters between the inter-groups of Hainan gibbon,vocal encounters and agonistic encounters happened between adult females, male sub-adults and male juveniles.The behavior of inter-group encounters of Hainan gibbons were not same as the other gibbon species,no fighting among Hainan gibbon, and not such behaviors as play and grooming,even the extra-group-copulations, meanwhile,the encounters time was shorter than other gibbon species.It suggested the behavior of the adult males was for the sake of protecting their territoriality,and by the way of chasing among under age individuals could make then learn how to protect their future territoriality.
9.Responses to inter-species encounters of the Hainan Gibbon:It showed that there were different responses among the human and nonhuman predators' and competitors' encounters of Hainan gibbon.The Hainan gibbons showed the discrepancy responses with the times increasing and the different distances between the human,meanwhile,the reactions of the adult females were different under the condition whether they had baby or not and the aging of the baby.When they met human beings,the adults selected to escape,but the juvenile would like to attack the snake or play with this animal.Hainan gibbons usually drive the other competitor species off the same food resource,but the juveniles did this frequently,just like the squirrel.In general,the adult male of the family was the protector of the group members and the food resource.
10.The vocal behaviors of Hainan gibbons:The vocal behavior of Hainan gibbon was different with all the known gibbon species,and it was the simplest song among the Hylobatidae,so this species maybe the original taxon among the gibbons.The vocal behaviors can be divided into five types according to the ecological meanings:1) the territory advertisement duet,2) the summon call,3) the adult male or female's solo call,4) the forewarn call,5) the alarming call.
Hainan gibbon is the most endangered independent primate species in the world. The study is the first time to use the GIS technology on the primates' habitat study, and found the gibbon utilizes the resource repeatedly.We found the reduction of habitat and the hunting was the main endangered factors,which shows it is the most important that restores and improves the current habitat for Hainan gibbons.
本研究获得主要结果如下:
1.海南黑冠长臂猿的分类地位:通过对其鸣叫声、成年雌雄性个体外部形态特征及部分解剖学特征,以及传统认为是其下一个亚种的东部黑冠长臂猿进行了全面的比较,并辅之以其他学者在分子生物学上的证据,认为应该赋予海南黑冠长臂猿独立种的分类地位,这样有助于对这个濒危物种开展更为有效的保护。
2.海南黑冠长臂猿的历史变迁:通过调查与观测,发现海南黑冠长臂猿之已处于濒危状态,50年内丧失了其99.4%的栖息地,种群数量急剧下降;2008年海南黑冠长臂猿的种群数量只有2个家庭群和5只独猿共20只,并生活在一个面积极小的热带原始林内。长臂猿濒危的原因是由于其栖息地的大规模丧失及人为的猎杀所造成的,海南岛上的原始森林覆盖率由2000年前的95.5%下降到了1999年的4%,而岛上人口则剧增了330%。
3.霸王岭海南黑冠长臂猿种群数量特征:通过研究,霸王岭国家级自然保护区的海南黑冠长臂猿同分布于岛内其他地区的同伴的一样,也经历了种群数量急剧下降的这样一个阶段,但即使在建立保护区之后,该物种的种群数量恢复的速度极为缓慢,并且近20年的时间里,没有见到有新的家庭群的建立,而原来所记录的家庭群却消失了两个。目前活动于栖息地内的独猿的组成是三雄二雌。
4.海南黑冠长臂猿栖息地植被结构分析:霸王岭现存的海南黑冠长臂猿的栖息地的植物群落总体上是热带落叶阔叶季雨林,并表现出一定的垂直地带性分布,海南黑冠长臂猿现在所活动的地方的植被类型应该是热带山地常绿林;其植物组成中,有着非常明显的优势种群,并且可以划分出五个植物群系。海南黑冠长臂猿的主要栖息地在海拔800-1000 m的沟谷,即生物多样性指数最高的地方;该范围内的主成分多为长臂猿喜食植物。
5.海南黑冠长臂猿的食物组成:海南黑冠长臂猿摄食植物隶属49科77属122种,雨季摄食植物有36科53属83种,其中乔木占83.1%,藤本占15.7%,草本占1.2%,食物组成中果实占90.4%-91.6%,嫩叶占7.2%-8.4%,花占1.2%。显示海南黑冠长臂猿的食物组成与其他种类长臂猿有很大差别,尤其是榕属植物,海南黑冠长臂猿采食的榕属植物种数较少。海南黑冠长臂猿主要食物隶属桑科、桃金娘科、番荔枝科、樟科、大戟科、杜英科等。旱季(1-6月)摄食植物隶属31科64种,其中乔木占79.7%,藤本占15.6%,草本占4.7%,旱季食物组成中果实占77.9-82.8%,嫩叶占17.6.18.8%,花占4.4-4.7%。
6.海南黑冠长臂猿对于栖息地的选择和利用:海南黑冠长臂猿主要选择栖息地内海拔800-900 m地段进行活动,该处的植物群落中的生物多样性指数最高,对地形因素中的坡度和坡向没有表现出选择性,海南黑冠长臂猿栖息地的海拔高度应该在中低地的雨林条件下更为合适。海南黑冠长臂猿A群的家域面积是978hm~2,B群的家域面积是584 hm~2。海南黑冠长臂猿的日移动距离在旱季和雨季有着明显的差异,旱季的移动距离要大于雨季的移动距离。同时,海南黑冠长臂猿喜欢选择高大乔木作为移动和休息的场所。
7.海南黑冠长臂猿的繁殖行为:海南黑冠长臂猿的交配行为是由雌性成年个体发起的,每一次交配行为的持续时间非常短,并且交配次数可以从1次到9次不等;交配姿势为爬胯式。雌性成年个体在怀孕期间也可以发生交配行为。同时,长臂猿孕期至少为173天,长臂猿出生后必须要到1岁半的时候才能完全离开母体独自活动。另外,海南黑冠长臂猿的生殖间隔是两年,生育高峰期应该是在每一年的雨季。现存的海南黑冠长臂猿的社会结构是一夫二妻制的。
8.海南黑冠长臂猿同种相遇的行为:现存的两群海南长臂猿之间的相遇行为不同于其它长臂猿,在海南长臂猿的相遇行为中,我们只观察到了雌雄性成年个体和雄性亚成体以及青年雄性个体之间的鸣叫和追逐行为,而没有发现的两群体成员间的玩耍和理毛行为,更没有偷情行为和激烈打斗行为的存在,即只存在着鸣叫行为和竞争性行为。同时,海南长臂猿相遇的持续时间也不像其它种类的长臂猿那样长,只有24-51分钟。另外,也没有发生打斗行为。对于海南长臂猿雌雄性成年个体在群体相遇时的行为,它们对其领域的保护,而未成年个体则是通过参与这种追逐方式学习如何保护自己今后的领域。
9.海南黑冠长臂猿与同域其他物种相遇的行为:野外观察海南长臂猿对于非同种物种相遇时的一系列反应,包括非人类捕食者、人类捕食者和相同生态位竞争种类。在遇到人类观察者后,根据观察距离远近的不同,以及观察次数和时间的不断增加,海南黑冠长臂猿对于人类的反应也随之不同;同时,携带有幼猿的母猿在遇到观察者时的反应随着幼猿的年纪的不断长大也有所不同。海南长臂猿与相同生态位竞争种相遇时,都被雄性海南长臂猿,尤其是青年雄性个体驱赶出它们的采食区域。海南长臂猿无论是在遇到捕食者还是食物竞争种类时,雄性成年个体起着保护家族群成员和保护资源的主要作用。
10.海南长臂猿的声讯行为:海南黑冠长臂猿的声音结构不同于任何一种长臂猿,是长臂猿中最为简单的鸣叫声,据此海南黑冠长臂猿应该是长臂猿科中原始的种类。它们的鸣叫声据不同的生态学意义可以划分为以下五种类型:1)领域性宣告;2)召唤性鸣叫;3)成年雌雄性各自的独唱;4)预警性叫声;5)示威性叫声。
海南黑冠长臂猿是一个极危独立种,通过运用GIS技术分析灵长类动物对栖息地的选择和利用,发现了长臂猿对于栖息地资源利用的重复性,还发现了灵长类动物有可能为了避免资源的竞争,对其出生的后代进行了性别选择。据此,揭示了海南黑冠长臂猿的关键致危因素是:栖息地的破坏和人为的捕猎。恢复和改善海南黑冠长臂猿的栖息条件是保护这一濒危物种的首要之举。
Hainan gibbon is the most endangered primates' species in the world now.Because the disturbance of human beings decades,the population of Hainan gibbon declined rapidly,meanwhile,the habitat shrinking continued.As so far,there was a few ecological information or data we knew.During the past four decades,only a few studies on this endangered species were conducted.We conducted the field research on this endangered species in Bawangling National Nature Reserve from August 2002 to September 2007,collected the basic ecological data of this species,such as:the taxonomy,population dynamic,food composition,the vegetation structure of habitat, and how this species selected and used the habitat,reproduction behavior,the relationship between the inter-group encounters of gibbon and the relationship between the gibbon and the other sympatric species.We hope can learn the comprehensive ecological information and provide the scientific suggestions and practice on the surviving of this endangered species.
The main results were as followings:
1.The taxonomy of Hainan gibbon:The taxonomic status of two crested gibbon taxa - Nomascus sp.cf.nasutus hainanus from Hainan Island,China and Nomascus sp. cf.nasutus from northeast Vietnam is clarified by compared the vocal behavior and the morphology of the two gibbons.The Hainan gibbon,also distributed to east of the Red River,was historically assigned to one species,N.concolor,and have only recently been recognized as one subspecies of the Eastern black crested gibbon N.sp. cf.nasutus.The study,based on their vocal and pelage differences,and the molecular evidence additional,shows that they are distinctive,and herein revalidate the Hainan endemic taxa as Nomascus hainanus and independent species,and deserve the most urgent conservation efforts.
2.The historical changes on Halnan gibbon:Census data show that populations of the species used to occur across the whole island,but in 2008 only 20 individuals could be found,confined to a small region,the Bawangling Natural Reserve(19°02′-19°08′N and 109°02′-109°13′E),in the western part of the island,covering only 14-16 km~2.In other words,about 99%of the habitat has vanished in the past 300 years.Such dramatic change has pushed the species to the edge of extinction;Total 20 individuals included only 2 groups and 5 solitary adult males,remained in 2008.The dramatic decline in the gibbon population has occurred due to vegetation reduction, ecological deterioration and extensive human impact.The forest cover was reduced from 95.5%2000 years ago to just 4%in 1999;and the human population in 2003 was 330%larger than in 1950.
3.The population character of Hainan gibbon in Bawangling National Nature Reserve:The population of Hainan gibbon which distributed in Bawangling area was same as the other distributed areas in Hainan Island,also experienced the rapid decline at the same time.According the filed study,there are 20 individuals lived in Bawangling now,but the population restoration speed is very slowly,and the saddest thing is no new family group had been set up for a decade years.There are 5 solitary gibbons also lived in Bawangling,the composition is 3 adult males and 2 adult females.
4.The vegetation structure of the habitat of Hainan gibbon:The vegetation was the tropical monsoon defoliation forest,and showed the vertical zonal distribution.The vegetation structure selected by Hainan gibbon belonged to mountainous ever green forest,and there were dominant species group among the vegetation composition, which could be divided into five plant formation.It showed that the highest biodiversity index is in the valley of 900-1000 m;meanwhile,there were the most principle component of plant species were eaten by Hainan gibbons.
5.The food composition of Hainan gibbon:The total plants species are 122 species,72 genus and 49 families which eaten by the Hainan gibbons,there were 83 species 53 genus and 36 families belong to the rain season foods of Hainan gibbons, the ratio of arbors is 83.1%,the vines are 15.7%and the herbs are 1.2%.The percentage of fruits is from 90.4%to 91.6%,and the young leaves are from 7.2%to 8.4%,the flowers are 1.2%.There are great differences of the food compositions among the Hainan gibbon and the other gibbon species,especially for the ficus fruit. The mainly plant families are Moraceae,Myrtaceae,Annonaceae,Lauraceae, Euphorblaceae,Elaeocarpaceae and so on,which eaten by Hainan gibbon.There were 64 species 31 families plants were recorded,which were eaten by Hainan black-crested gibbon(N.hainanus) in dry season.The life form of the food plants could be divided into arbor(79.7%),vine(15.6%) and herb(4.7%),the components of the dry season were fruits(77.9-82.8%),young leave(17.6-18.8%) and flowers (4.4-4.7%).
6.The selective and utilize on habitat of Hainan gibbon:Hainan gibbon utilized the middle and low area is more suitable habitat for this species,they just utilized the 800-1000 m channels frequently in their current habitat,where diversity and density of fruiting trees is greatest.They did not show the selective on the slope direction and the gradient,and the lowland forests may be the suitable habitat.The home range area of Hainan gibbon is very bigger than the other gibbon species,group A was estimated to be 978 ha,group B was estimated to be 584 ha,this related with the food resource distributed in the habitat unevenly.The ranging distance of Hainan gibbon had a obvious difference between the wet and dry season,the distance in dry season was longer than the wet season's,this may be explained by Hainan gibbon was depend on the fruit as their main food,the observation also testified this point.It showed Hainan gibbon also likes select the higher arbor as their rest and move location.
7.The reproductive behavior of Hainan gibbon:Receptive females initiated courtship displays.Copulatory pattems involved the male mounting dorso-ventrally from above and behind.Multiple intromissions with thrusting were brief,lasting＜10 s per copulation.We also observed post-conception proceptivity and copulations in sexually active females.It estimated the gestation period to be 173 d at least.Infants became independent at 1.5 year.The inter-birth interval is ca.24 too.It also suggested that mating activities peak in the rainy season.The Hainan gibbons are polygynous, with a 1 male-2 females mating system.
8.Responses to inter-group encounters of the Hainan Gibbon:It showed there were two kinds behavior occurred the encounters between the inter-groups of Hainan gibbon,vocal encounters and agonistic encounters happened between adult females, male sub-adults and male juveniles.The behavior of inter-group encounters of Hainan gibbons were not same as the other gibbon species,no fighting among Hainan gibbon, and not such behaviors as play and grooming,even the extra-group-copulations, meanwhile,the encounters time was shorter than other gibbon species.It suggested the behavior of the adult males was for the sake of protecting their territoriality,and by the way of chasing among under age individuals could make then learn how to protect their future territoriality.
9.Responses to inter-species encounters of the Hainan Gibbon:It showed that there were different responses among the human and nonhuman predators' and competitors' encounters of Hainan gibbon.The Hainan gibbons showed the discrepancy responses with the times increasing and the different distances between the human,meanwhile,the reactions of the adult females were different under the condition whether they had baby or not and the aging of the baby.When they met human beings,the adults selected to escape,but the juvenile would like to attack the snake or play with this animal.Hainan gibbons usually drive the other competitor species off the same food resource,but the juveniles did this frequently,just like the squirrel.In general,the adult male of the family was the protector of the group members and the food resource.
10.The vocal behaviors of Hainan gibbons:The vocal behavior of Hainan gibbon was different with all the known gibbon species,and it was the simplest song among the Hylobatidae,so this species maybe the original taxon among the gibbons.The vocal behaviors can be divided into five types according to the ecological meanings:1) the territory advertisement duet,2) the summon call,3) the adult male or female's solo call,4) the forewarn call,5) the alarming call.
Hainan gibbon is the most endangered independent primate species in the world. The study is the first time to use the GIS technology on the primates' habitat study, and found the gibbon utilizes the resource repeatedly.We found the reduction of habitat and the hunting was the main endangered factors,which shows it is the most important that restores and improves the current habitat for Hainan gibbons.
引文
[1][10][14] Groves, C. P. Primate taxonomy. [M]. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington & London. 2001.
[2] Thomas, O. Note on the gibbon of the island of Hainan (Hylobates hainanus, sp. n.). Ann. Mag.Hist,[J].1892,9(6), 145-146.
[3] Pocock, R. I. Observations upon a female specimen of the Hainan Gibbon (Hylobates hainanus), now living in the society's gardens. Proceedings of the Zoological Society, London [J]. 1905(2): 169-180.
[4][27] Delacour,J.La systematique des Gibbons Indochinois. Mammalia.[J].1951.15: 118-123. (In French.)
[5] Chivers, D. J. The lesser apes. In: Primate Conservation (eds. Prince Rainier III of Monaco & G H., Bourne) [M]. Academic Press, London and New York 1977 pp.539-598.
[6] Groves, C. P. Systematics and phylogeny of gibbons. In Gibbon and siamang (eds. D.M.Rumbaugh). [M]. Karger, Basel & New York. 1972. pp.1-89.
[7] Marshall,J.T.& Sugardjito,J. Gibbon systematics. In Comparative primate biology, Vol. 1:Systematics, evolution, and anatomy (eds. D. R. Swindler & J. Erwin) [M]. Alan R. Liss, New York. 1986.pp.137-185.
[8]Geissmann Geissmann, T. Gibbon systematics and species identification. International Zoo News. [J]. 1995.42:467-501.
[9] Geissmann, T. New sounds from the crested gibbons (Hylobates concoior group): First results of a systematic revision. Zissler, D. (ed.), In Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft: Kurzpublikationen- Short Communications, 90. Jahresversammlung 1997 in Mainz Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart.[C]. 1997. pp.170.
[11] Geissmann, T.; La Quang Trung; Trinh Dinh Hoang; Vu Dinh Thong; Dang Ngoc Can & Pham Duc Tien. Rarest ape species rediscovered in Vietnam. Asian Primates.[J]. 2003.8(3-4):8-10.
[12] Brandon-Jones, D., Eudey, A. A., Geissmann, T., Groves, C. P., Melnick, D. J., Morales, J. C.,Shekelle M. and Stewart, C.-B. Asian Primate Classification. International Journal of Primatology [J].2004.25(1):97-164.
[13] Su, B., Kressirer, P., Monda. K., Wang W., Jiang. X., Wang. Y., Woodruff, D. S. & Zhang Y.Mitochondrial DNA variation and Mlecular Phylogeny of Chinese Concoior Gibbons with non-invasive DNA genotyping. Science in China[J]. 1996. 26(5): 414-419. (In China)
[15] [17] Liu, Z.; Yu, S.; Yuan, Xi. The resource of the Hainan black gibbon at its present situation. Chinese Wildlife.[J]. 1984.6:1-4 (in Chinese).
[16] Zhou, J., Wei F. W., Li, M., Zhang, J. F., Wang, D. L. & Pan, R. L., Hainan black-crested gibbon is headed for extinction. International Journal of Primatology. [J] . 2005.26(2): 453-465.
[18] Geissmann, T. and Chan, B. The Hainan Black Crested Gibbon: Most critically endangered ape. Folia Primatologica .[C]. 2004.75 (suppl. 1): 116.
[19] Mitani J.C. The behavioral regulation of monogamy in gibbons. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. [J] .1984. 15:225-229.
[20] Palombit R.A. Infanticide and the evolution of pair bonds in nonhuman primates. Evol.Anthropol. [J] .1999.7:117-129.
[21] van Schaik C.P, Dunbar R.M. The evolution of monogamy in large primates: a new hypothesis and some crucial tests. Behaviour. [J] .1990.115:30-62.
[22] Tilson RL. Monogamous mating systems of gibbons and langurs in the Mentawai Islands,Indonesia.[D]. Davis: University of California. 1980.
[23] Wittenberger J.F. & Tilson R.L. The evolution of monogamy: hypotheses and evidence.Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. [J]. 1980. 11:197-232.
[24] [44] Brockelman WY, Srikosamatara S. Maintenance and evolution of social structure in gibbons. In: Prueschoft H, Chivers DJ, Brockelman WY, Creel N, editors. The lesser apes:evolution, behaviour, and biology. [C]. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 1984.pp.283-323.
[25] Chivers D.J. The siamang in Malaysia. In: Contributions to primatology. [M]. Basel: Karger.1974. pp.1-335.
[26] Ellefson, J.O. A natural history of white-handed gibbons in the Malayan Peninsula. In D.M.Rumbaugh (ed.), Gibbon and Siamang. Vol. 3: Natural History, Social Behavior, Reproduction.Vocalization.[M]. Prehension. S. Karger, Basel, 1974. pp.1-136.
[28] Carpenter R. A field study in Siam of the behavior and social relations of the gibbon (Hylobates lar). Comp. Psychol. Monogr. [J].1940.16:1-212.
[29] [36] Liu Zhenhe, ZhangYongzu, Jiang Haisheng, Southwick C. Population structure of Hylobates concolor in Bawanglin Nature Reserve, Hainan, China. Am. J. Primatol.[J]. 1989.19:247-254.
[30] Liu, Z.; Jiang, H.; Zhang, Y; Liu, Y; Chou, T.; Manry, D.; & Southwick, C. Field report on the Hainan Gibbon. Primate Conservation.[C]. 1987.8: 49-50.
[31] Song, X., Jiang, H.; Zhang, J., Chen, Q., Wang, C. and Lin, W. A survey of the hainan gibbon (Hylobates concolor hainanus) in Hainan. In Chinese zoology society (Eds): Zoological studies in China.[C]. 1999. pp. 696-701.
[32] [33] [42] Jiang, H. S., Song, X., Zhang, J., Wang, C., Wang C. and Chen, K. The population dynamic of Hylobates concolor hainanus in Bawangling National Nature Reserve in Hainan Island.1999. (unpublished report)
[34][54]Leighton D.R.Gibbons:territoriality and monogamy.In:Smuts BB,Cheney DL,Seyfarth RM,Wrangham RW,Struhsaker TT,editors.Primate societies.[M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press.1987.pp.135-145.
[35]Xu,L.;Liu,Z.;Yu,S.et al.The birds and mammals of Hainan Island.[M].Beijing:Science Press,1983.pp.314-316.
[37]Haimoff E.H,Yang J.Y,He S.J,Chen N.Census and survey of wild black crested gibbons (Hylobates concolor concolor).Folia Primatol.[J].1986.46:205-214.
[38]Haimoff,E.Yang,X.J.He,S.J.Chen.N.Preliminary observations of wild black-crested gibbons(Hylobates concolor concolor) in Yunnan province,People's Republic of China.Primates.[J].1987.28:319-335.
[39]Bleisch WV,Chen N.Ecology of wild back-crested gibbons(Hylobates concolor) in China with a reconsideration of evidence of polygyny.Primates.[J].1991.32:539-548.
[40]Jiang X.L.,Ma S.L.,Wang Y.X.,Sheeran L.K.,Poirier F.E.,Wang Q.Group size and composition of Black crested gibbon(Hylobates concolor) Zoological Research.[J].1994.15(2):15-22.
[41]蒋学龙,马世来,王应祥等.黑长臂猿(Hylobates concolor)的配偶制及其与行为、生态和进化的关系.人类学学报.[J].1994.13(4):344-352.
[43]Fan P.E,Jiang X.L.,Liu C.M.,Luo,W.S.Polygynous mating system and behevioural reason of black crested gibbon(Nomascus concolor jingdongensis) at Dazhaizi,Mt.Wuliang,Yurman,China Zoological Research.[J].2006.27(2):216-220.
[45]Fuentes A.Re-evaluating primate monogamy.Am.Anthropol.[J].1999a.100:890-907.
[46]Fuentes A.Variable social organization in primates:what can looking at primate groups tell us about the evolution of plasticity in primate societies? In:Dolhinow PD,Fuentes A,editors.The nonhuman primates.Mountain View:[M].Mayfield Publishing Co.1999b.pp.183-189.
[47]Fuentes A.Pair bonds in lemurs,monkeys,gibbons and humans? A preliminary evaluation of semantics and reality in pair bond models.Am.J.Phys.Anthropol.[J].1999c.[Suppl]28:129.
[48]Fuentes A.The variable evolution of pairbonds in human and nonhuman primates.Am.J.Phys.Anthropol.[J].2000.[Suppl]30:153.
[49]Chivers,D.J.,ed.(1980) "Malayan Forest Primates:Ten Years'Study in Tropical Rain Forest".[M].Plenum Press,New York.
[50][154]李茂盛,胡灿坤.浅议云南长臂猿栖息地的保护与恢复.林业调查规划.[J].2003,28(2):91-94.
[51]舒梅.滇南热带雨林榕树的研究综述.思茅师范高等专科学校学报.[J].2005,21(3).
[52]Chivers D.J.The swinging singing apes:fighting for food and family in far-east forests.IN The Apes:Challenge for the 21th Century.[M].2000,1-28.
[53]Ahsan,M.F.Behavioural ecology of the hooiock gibbon(Hylobates hoolock) in Bangladesh. [D],University of Cambridge.1994.
[54][58]Leighton,M.and Leighton,D.R.Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rainforest.In:Tropical Rain Forest:Ecology and Management(Sutton,S.L.,Whitmore,T.C.and Chadwick,A.C.ed.).[M].Blackwell Scientific Publications,Oxford.1983.pp.181-196.
[55]林家怡,莫罗坚,庄学影等.海南黑冠长臂猿主要摄食植物的区系分布多样性研究.热带林业.[J].2006,34(3):20-24.
[56]Gittins S.P.Feeding and ranging in the agile gibbon.Folia Primatol.[J].1982.38:39-71.
[57]Bartlett TQ.Feeding and ranging of the whitehanded gibbon(Hylobates lar) in Khao Yai National Park,Thailand.[D].St.Louis:Washington University.1999a.
[59]Ahsan,M.F.Behavioural ecology oftbe hoolock gibbon(Hylobates hoolock) in Bangladesh.[D].University of Cambridge.1994.
[60]Waterman,P.G.,J.A.M.Ross,and D.B.McKey.Factors affecting levels of some phenolic compounds,digestibility,and nitrogen content of the mature leaves of Baxteria fistulosa (Passifloraceae).Journal of Chemical Ecology.[J].1984.10:387-401.
[61]Waterman,P.G.A comparison of the floristics and leaf chemistry of the tree flora in two Malaysian rain forests and the influence of leaf chemistry on populations of colobine monkeys in the Old World.Biological Journal of the Linnean Society [J].1988.34(1).
[62]Waterman & Choo,Digestibility,digestion-inhibitors and nutrients of herbaceous foliage and green stems from an African montane flora and comparison with other tropical flora.Oecologia [J].1983.64(2).
[63]Waterman P.G,Choo G.M.The effects of digestibility-reducing compounds in leaves on food selection by some Coiobinae.Malays Appl Biol.[J].1981.10:147-162.
[64]Waterman P.G,Mbi C.N,McKey D.B,Gaxtlan J.S.African rain forest vegetation and rumen microbes:phenolic compounds and nutrients as correlates of digestibility.Oecologia.[J].1980.47:22-33.
[65]Zhang,Y.Z;Quan,G.;Yang,D.;Liu,Z.;Sheeran,L.K.Population parameters of the black gibbon in China in Xia,W.;Zhang,Y.(ed.) Primate Research and Conservation.[C].China Forestry Publishing House,Beijing,1995.pp.203-220.
[66]林家怡等,海南黑冠长臂猿栖息地群落优势种及采食植物生态位特性.华南农业大学学报.[J].2006.27(4):52-57.
[67]Bartlett T.Q.The gibbons.In:Dolhinow PD,Fuentes A,editors.The nonhuman primates.Mountain View.[M].Mayfield Publishing Co.1999b.pp.44-49.
[68]Chivers D.J.Feeding and ranging in gibbons:a summary.In:Prueschoft H,Chivers DJ,Brockelman WY,Creel N,editors.The lesser apes:evolution,behaviour,and biology.[M].Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.1984.pp.267-283.
[69]Fellowes J.R,Bosco C,Lok P,Jiang Z,Shenghua C,Shibin Y,Chit N.S.Current Status of the Hainan Gibbon(Nomascus hainanus):Progress of Population Monitoring and Other Priority Actions.Asian Primates Journal.[J].2008.1(1):4-11.
[70]Chart B.P.L,Fellowes J.R,Geissmann T,Zhang J.Hainan gibbon status survey and conservation action plan,version 1(last updated November 2005).Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden Technical Report.2005.
[71]汪松,中国濒危动物红皮书-兽类.[M].科学出版社.1998.
[72]汪松、解焱,中国物种红色名录-哺乳类.[M].科学出版社.2003.
[73]海南霸王岭林业局,北京林业大学自然保护区研究中心,海南霸王岭国家自然保护区管理处.海南霸王岭国家自然保护区综合考察报告.[C].
[74]Takacs,Z.,Morales,J.C.,Geissmann,T.and Melnick,D.J.A complete species-level phylogeny of the Hylobatidae based on mitochondrial ND3-ND4 gene sequences.Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.[J].2005.36:456-467.
[75]Preuschoft,H.,Chivers,D.J.,Brockelman,W.and Creel,N.(eds.).The Lesser Apes-Evolutionary and Behavioural Biology.[M].Edinburgh University Press,Edinburgh.1984.
[76]Brandon-Jones,D.,Eudey,A.A.,Geissmann,T.,Groves,C.P.,Melnick,D.J,Morales,J.C.,Shekelle & M,Stewart,C.B.Asian Primate Classification.International Journal of Primatology.[J].2004.25(1).97-164.
[77]Geissmann,T.Taxonomy and evolution of gibbons.In:Soligo,C.,Anzenberger,G.,and Martin,R.D.(eds.),Anthropology and primatology into the third millennium:The Centenary Congress of the Z(u｜¨)rich Anthropological Institute(Evolutionary Anthropology Vol.11,Supplement 1).[J].Wiley-Liss,New York,2002a.pp.28-31.
[78]Geissmann,T.Duet-splitting and the evolution of gibbon songs.Biological Reviews.[J].2002b.77:57-76.
[79]Hall,L.M.Jones,D.S.and Wood,B.A.Evolution of the Gibbon Subgenera Inferred from Cytochrome b DNA Sequence Data.Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.[J].1998.10(3):281-286.
[80]Roos,C.& Geissmann,T.Molecular phylogeny of the major hylobatid devisions.Molecular Phyiogenetics and Evolution.[J].2001.19(3):486-494.
[81]Zhang,Y.Mitochondrial DNA sequence evolution and phylogenetic relationships of gibbons.Acta Genetica Sinica.[J].1997.24.231-237.
[82]Roos,C.Molecular evolution and systematics of Vietnamese primates.In:Conservation of Primates in Vietnam,T.Nadler,U.Streicher,and T.L.Ha(eds.).[M].Hanoi:Haki Publishing.2004.pp.23-28.
[83]Dao Van Tien.On the North Indochinese gibbons(Hylobates concolor)(Primates:Hylobatidae) in North Vietnam.Journal of Human Evolution.[J].1983.12.367-372.
[84]Ma,S.& Wang,Y.The taxonomy and distribution of the gibbons in southern China and its adjacent region - with description of three new subspecies.Zoological Research.[J]. 1986.7:393-410.
[85] Ma, S., Wang, Y., & Poirier, F. E. Taxonomy, distribution, and status of gibbons (Hylobates) in southern China and adjacent areas. Primates.[J].1988.29 (2): 277-286.
[86] Groves, C. P. Speciation in living hominoid primates. In Species, species concepts, and primate evolution (eds. W. H. Kimbel & L. B. Martin). [M]. Plenum Press, New York & London.1993.pp.109-121.
[87] Groves, C. P. & Wang, Y. The gibbons of the subgenus Nomascus (Primates, Mammalia).Zoological Research.[J].1990. 11.147-154.
[88] Groves, C. P. The What, Why and How of Primate Taxonomy.International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 2004.25 (5).
[89] Su, B., Monda, K., Wang W., Jiang, X., Wang, Y., Woodruff, D. S. & Zhang Y. Molecular Phylogeny of Chinese Concolor Gibbons (Subgenus Nomascus) - using non-invasive DNA genotyping. In: Xia, W. and Zhang, Y. (eds.), Primae Research and Conservation. [C].China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, 1995. pp.55-63.
[90] Fooden, J., Quan, G & Luo, Y. Gibbon distribution in China. Acta Theriologica Sinica. [J].1987. 7(3): 161-167.
[91] Nadler, T. Rediscovery of the Eastern Black Crested Gibbon Nomascus sp. cf. n. nasutus in Vietnam. The Gibbon's Voice. [J]. 2003. 6(1):1-3.
[92] La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang. Status review of the Cao Vit Black-crested Gibbon (Nomascus nasutus nasutus) in Vietnam. In: Nadler, T., Streicher, U. & Ha Thang Long (eds),Conservation of Primates in Vietnam.[M]. Hanoi. 2004. pp.3-28.
[93] Mootnick, A., Rylands, A.B. and Konstant, W.R. Hainan Black-crested Gibbon. In:Mittermiere, R.A., Valladares-Padua, C, Rylands, A.B., Euday, A.A., Butynski, T.M., Ganzhorn,J.U., Kormos, R., Aguiar, J.M. and Walker, S. (eds.), The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2004-2006. PSG, IPS, CI, 2005.30-31.
[94] Geissmann, T.; La Quang Trung; Trinh Dinh Hoang; Vu Dinh Thong; Dang Ngoc Can & Pham Duc Tien Rarest ape species rediscovered in Vietnam. Asian Primates. [J].2003.8(3-4):8-10.
[95] Groves, C.P. Taxonomy and biogeography of primates in Vietnam and neighbouring regions.In: Nadler, T., Streicher, U. & Ha Thang Long (eds), Conservation of Primates in Vietnam. [M].Hanoi, 2004.15-22.
[96] Kunckel d'Herculais, J. Le Gibbon du Tonkin. Science et Nature. [J]. 1884. 2(33): 86-90.
[97] Wang Y. A complete checklist of mammal species and subspecies in China - A taxonomic and geographic reference. [M].China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, 2003.pp.394.
[98] Geissmann, T. A Female Black Gibbon, Hylobates concolor Subspecies, from Northeastern Vietnam. International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1989.10(5): 455-476.
[99] Chan, B.P.L. and Ng, S.-C. Report of a Rapid Biodiversity Assessment at Trung Khanh Proposed Nature Reserve, Cao Bang Province, Northeast Vietnam, 20 to 24 October 2005.Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden Technical Report: No.4. KFBG, Hong Kong SAR, 2006. pp.ii +18.
[100] Haimoff, E. The organization of song in the Hainan black gibbon (Hylobates concolor hainanus).Primates, [J]. 1984. 25: 225-235.
[101] Brandon-Jones, D. The Pros and Cons of a Consensus List of Asian Primate Subspecies.Primae Conservation. [J].2006. 20: 89-93.
[102] Standard, C.B. The Subspecies Concept in Primatology: The Case of Mountain Gorillas.Primates. [J]. 2001. 42(4): 309-318.
[103] Marshall, J. Marshall, E.Gibbons and their territorial songs. Science. [J]. 1976.193:235-237.
[104] Caldecott, J. Habitat quality and populations of two sympatric gibbons (Hylobatidae) on a mountain in Malaya. Folia primatol. [J]. 1980.33:291-309.
[105] Haimoff, E.H.; Yang, X.J.; He, S. J.; Chen, N. Census and survey of wild black-crested gibbons (Hylobates concolor concolor) in Yunnan province, People's Republic of China. Folia primatol. [J]. 1986.46:205-214.
[106] Marsh, C; Wilson, W. A survey of primates in peninsular Malaysia, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. 1981.
[107] Brockelman, W.; Srikosamatara, S. The use of territorial vocalizations in surveying for pileated gibbons. Wth Congr. Int. Primatol. Soc..[C].1979.pp.l06-107.
[108] Brockelman, W. and Srikosamatara, S. Estimation of density of gibbon groups by use of loud songs. Am. J. Primatol. [J]. 1993.2993-108.
[109] 颜家安,海南岛生态环境变迁研究.[M].科技出版社. 2008.
[110] Mammalogical Society of China, Caring for Primates Abstracts of the XIXth Congress of the International Primatological Society, 4~(th)-9~(th) August, Beijing, China. 2002.
[111] Li, B. G, Jia, Z. Y., Pan, R. L., Ren, B. P. Changes in distribution of the snub-nosed monkey in China. Marsh, L.K. (ed.) Primates in fragments ecology and conservations. 18th Congress of the International-Primatological-Society Adelaide, Australia, Int Primatol Soc. [C]. New York,Plenum Public, 2003. pp.29-51.
[112] Hainan Bureau of Statistic, Hainan Statistical Yearbook 2003, China Statistical Press. 2003.
[113] Goodman, D. The demography of chance extinction. In: Soule, M. E. ed. Viable Population for Conservation. [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1987.11-34.
[114] Ballou, J. Demographic processes in small and fragmented population. In: Florida Key Deer Population Viability Assessment. Florida: Population viability analysis workshop.[J]. 1990.30-39.
[115] Lande, R. Barrowclough, G. F. Effective population size, genetic variation, and their use in population management. In: Soule, M. E. ed. Viable population for conservation. [M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. 1987.pp. 125-140.
[116]Lacy,R.C.Loss of genetic diversity from managed populations:Interacting effects of drift,mutation,immigration,selection,and population subdivision.Conserv.Biol.[J].1987.1:143-158.
[117]Boice,M.S.Population viability analysis.Ann.Rev.Ecol.Syst.[J].1992.23:481-506.
[118]Lacy,R.C.VORTEX:A computer simulation model for population viability analysis.Wildl.Res.[J].1993.20:45-65.
[119]Lindenmayer,D.B.,Lacy,R.C.,Thomas,V.C.et al.Predictions of the impacts of changes in population size and environmental variability on leadbeater's possum,Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy(Marsupialia:Petauridae) using population viability analysis:an application of the computer Vortex.Wildl.Res.[J].1993.20:67-86.
[120]魏辅文,胡锦矗,大熊猫种群生存力初步分析 见张安居何光晰主编 成都国际大熊猫保护学术研讨会论文集.[C].成都四川科学技术出版社.1994.116-122.
[121]张先锋,王丁,王克维,涡旋模型及其在白暨豚种群管理中的应用 生物多样性.[J].1994.23:133-139.
[122]Zhou Jiang et al.,Reproductive Characters and Mating Behaviour of Wild Nomascus hainanus.International Journal of Primatology.[J].2008.29:1037-1046.
[123]黄久香,王通,庄雪影.广东增城主要森林群落优势种群的生态位研究.华南农业大学学报:自然科学版.[J].2003,24(4):52-55.
[124]胡玉佳,丁小球.海南岛坝王岭热带天然林植物物种多样性研究生物多样性.[J].2000.8(4):370-377.
[125]余世孝.非度量多维测度及其在群落分类中的应用,植物生态学报.[J].1995.19(2):128136.
[126]臧润国,杨彦承,蒋有绪.海南岛霸王岭热带山地雨林群落结构及树种多样性特征的研究.植物生态学报.[J].2001,25(3):270-275.
[127]林益名.海南霸王岭山地雨林的群落的结构特征.生态学报.[J].1992.
[128]戴小华,余世孝等 海南岛霸王岭热带雨林的种间分离.植物生态学报.[J].2003.3(14):22-26.
[129]张宏达,海南岛植被分类方案.植物生态学与地植物学丛刊.[J].1963,1(1-2):141-142.
[130]臧润国,蒋有绪,余世孝.海南霸王岭热带山地雨林森林循环与树种多样性动态.生态学报.[J].2002.22(4).
[131]Chivers D.J.The swinging singing apes:Fighting for food and family in far-east forests.The Apes:Challenges for the 21st Century.[M].Chicago Zoological Society,Brookfield,Illinois,U.S.A.2001.1-28.
[132]Mather,R.J.A field study of hybrid gibbons in Central Kalimantan,Indonesia.Unpublished Ph.D.thesis,[D].University of Cambridge.1992.
[133]扈宇,许宏伟,杨德华.白颊长臂猿的食性研究.生态学报.[J].1990.10(2):155-159.
[134][135]Chivers,D.J.and Davies,A.G.Abundance of primates in the Krau Game Reserve,Peninsular Malaysia.In "The Abundance of Animals in Malesian Rain Forests"(A.G.Marshall,ed.).[C].Miscell.Series,no.22,Dept.of Geography,University of Hull(Aberdeen-Hull Symposia on Malesian Ecology).1979.pp.9-32.
[136][142]魏作东,杨大荣,彭艳琼等.榕树在西双版纳热带雨林生态系统中的作用.生态学杂志,[J].2005,24(3):233:237.
[137]许再富.榕树-滇南热带雨林生态系统一类关键植物.生物多样性.[J].1994.2(1):21-23.
[138]杨大荣,李朝达,杨兵.西双版纳热带雨林中榕树动物群落结构与多样性研究.动物学研究.[J].1997,18(2):189-196.
[139][140][153]赵庭周,杨大荣,许继宏.榕树在西双版纳热带雨林中的地位和综合利用价值.林业科学研究.[J].2001,14(4):441-445.
[141]O'Brien,T.G.,M.F.Kinnaird,E.S.Dierenfeld,N.L.Conklin-Brittain,S.C.Silver,and R.W.Wrangham.What's so special about figs:a pantropical mineral analysis.Nature.[J].1998.392:668.
[143]杨大荣,彭艳琼,张光明,等.西双版纳热带雨林聚果榕隐头果的昆虫群落结构与多样性.应用生态学报.[J].2003.14(10):1591-1596.
[144]王学君.幼长臂猿的人工饲养[J].野生动物.1992.3:46-47.
[145]潘阳.笼养白眉长臂猿的繁殖初探.四川动物.[J].2000.19(2):88-89.
[146]李国锋.雄性白颊长臂猿的饲养.经济动物学报.[J].2001.5(2):39-42.
[147]邹如金,季维智,杨上川等.滇金丝猴驯养的初步研究.动物学研究.[J].1994,15(2):87-92.
[148]张莉.日本林蛙食性分析.[J].动物学杂志,1987,22(6):22-24.
[149]刘丙万,蒋志刚.粪样在野生动物研究中的作用.动物学研究.[J].2002,23(1):71-76.
[150]蓝道英,云南西南地区黑长臂猿群构成、生态和行为的初步研究.动物学研究.[J]1989,10(增刊):119-126.
[151]Shanahan M.S,Compton S.G,Coder R.Fig-eating by vertebrate frllgivores:a global review Biological Review.[J].2001.76:529-572.
[152]Gittins,S.P and Raemaekers,J.J.Siamang,lar and agile gibbons.In:Malayan Forest Primates:Ten Years Study in Tropical Rain Forests(Chivers D.J.,ed.).[M].Plenum Press,New York.1980.pp.63-105.
[155]白冰,周伟,艾怀森,等.高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿春季栖息地利用.动物学研究.[J].2007.28(2):179-185.
[156]Burt,W.H.,Territoriality and home range concepts as applied to mammals.Journal of Mammology.[J].1943.24:346-352.
[157]Teichroeb,J.A.,Saj,T.L.,Paterson,J.D.,Sicotte,P.,Effect of group size on activity budgets of Colobus vellerosus in Ghana.Int.J.Primatol.[J].2003.24:743-758.
[158]Terborgh,J.,Five New World Primates.Princeton University Press,Princeton,New York.1983.
[159]Guisan A,Zimmermann NE.Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology.Ecological Modelling.[J].2000.135(2-3):147-186.
[160]Kerr JT,Ostrovsky M.From space to species:ecological applications for remote sensing.Trends in Ecology & Evolution.[J].2003.18(6):299-305.
[161]赵英时等.遥感应用分析原理与方法.白春礼等主编.[M]北京:科学出版社.2003.
[162]Gontier M,Balfors B,M(o｜¨)rtberg U.Biodiversity in environmental assessment--current practice and tools for prediction.Environmental Impact Assessment Review.[J].2006.26(3):268-286.
[163]Liu J,Linderman M,Ouyang Z,An L,Yang J,Zhang H.Ecological Degradation in Protected Areas:The Case of Wolong Nature Reserve for Giant Pandas.[C].2001.pp.98-101.
[164]Xiao W,Ding W,Cui LW,Zhou RL,Zhao QK.Habitat Degradation of Rhinopithecus bieti in Yunnan,China.International Journal of Primatology.[J].2003.24(2):389-398.
[165]Wang W,Ren G.P,He Y.H.,Zhu J.G.Habitat Degradation and Conservation Status Assessment of Gallinaceous Birds in the Trans-Himalayas,China.Wildlife management.DOI:10.2193/2007-077.2008.
[166]Harrison D.J,Chapin T.G.An assessment of potential habitat for eastern timber wolves in the northeastern United States and connectivity with occupied habitat in southeastern Canada.Wildlife Conservation Society Working Paper.1997.7:1-12.
[167]Corsi F,Dupre E,Boitani L.A Large-Scale Model of Wolf Distribution in Italy for Conservation Planning.Conservation Biology.[J].1999.13(1):150-159.
[168]Osborne P.E,Alonso J.C,Bryant R.G.Modelling landscape-scale habitat use using GIS and remote sensing:a ease study with great bustards.Journal of Applied Ecology.[J].2001.38(2):458-471.
[169]Kozak K.H,Wiens J.J.Does Niche Conservatism Promote Speciation? A Case Study in North American Salamanders.Evolution.[J].2006.60(12):2604-2621.
[170]Bunn A.G,Urban D.L,Keitt T.H.Landscape connectivity:A conservation application of graph theory.Journal of Environmental Management.[J].2000.59(4):265-278.
[171]Techniques for the Study of Primate Population Ecology.Washington,D.C.National Academy Press.1981.
[172]Altmann,J.Observational study of behavior:sampling methods.Behavior.[J].1974.69:227-263.
[173]Milton,K.,May,M.L.,Body weight,diet and home range area in primates.Nature.[J]. 1976.259:459-462.
[174] Clutton-Brock, T.H., Harvey, P.H., Species differences in feeding and ranging behaviour in primates. In: Clutton-Brock, T.H.eds. Primate ecology: studies of feeding and raging behaivour in lemurs, monkeys, and apes, [M].Academic Press, London. 1977.pp.585-590.
[175] Srikosamatara and Brockelman Polygyny in a group of Pileated Gibbons via a familial route.International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1987.4.
[176] MacKinnon, J.R. and MacKinnon, K.S. Niche differentiation in a primate community. In:Malayan Forest Primates: Ten Years' Study in Tropical Rain Forest (D.J. Olivers, ed.)[M].Plenum Press, New York. 1980. pp.167-190.
[177] Palombit, R.A. Pair bonds and monogamy in wild siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) and white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) in northern Sumatra. Unpubl. Ph.Dthesis. [D]. University of California, Davis. 1992.
[178] Feeroz, M.M. and Islam, M.A. Ecology and Behaviour of Hoolock Gibbons in Bangladesh.Multidisciplinary Action Research Centre, Dhaka. 1992.
[179] Clutton-Brock, T.H., Some aspects of intraspecific variation in feeding and ranging behavior in primates. In: Clutton-Brock, T.H.eds. Primate ecology: studies of feeding and raging behaivour in lemurs, monkeys, and apes,[M]. Academic Press, London: 1977a. pp.539-556.
[180] Richard, A.F. Primates in Nature. [M]. W. H. Freeman, New York. 1985.
[181] Ahsan, F. Human impact on 2 forests of Bangladesh: A preliminary case study. In Bissonette,J.A. & Krausman, P.R. (eds.), Integrating people and wildlife for a sustainable future. Proceedings of the first International Wildlife Management Congress. [C]. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda,Maryland, 1995.pp.368-372.
[182] Fashing, P.J., Activity and ranging patterns of guerezas in the Kakamega forest: intergroup variation and implications for intragroup feeding competition. Int. J. Primatol. [J]. 2001.22:549-577.
[183] Dunbar, R.I.M., Primate Social Systems [M]. Beckenham: Croom Helm. 1988.
[184] Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., Struhsaker, T.T. Primate Societies.[M]. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1987.
[185] Srikosamatara, S. Ecology of the pileated gibbon in Southeast Thailand. In: "The Lesser Apes: Evolutionary and Behavioural Biology" (H. Preuschoft, D.J. Chivers,W.Y. Brockelman and N. Creel, eds). [M]. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1984. pp.242-257.
[186] Tilson, R.L. On the behaviour of the hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) during different seasons in Assam, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. [J].1979.76: 1-16.
[187] Raemaekers, J.J. Gibbons and trees: comparative ecology of the siamang and lar gibbons.Unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation. [D]. University of Cambridge. 1977.
[188] West, K. The ecology and behaviour of the siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) in Sumatra.Unpublished M.Sc. thesis. [D]. University of California, Davis. 1981.
[189] Whitten, A.J. The Kloss gibbon in Siberut rain forest. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, [D].University of Cambridge. 1980.
[190] Kappeler, M. The Javan silvery gibbon (Hylobates lar moloch): habitat, distribution,numbers, ecology and behaviour.Unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, [D].University of Basel. 1981.
[191] Brockelman, W.Y., U. Reichard, et al. Dispersal, Pair Formation and Social Structure in Gibbons. Behavior Ecology & Sociology. [J]. 1998.42:329-339.
[192] [233]Nettelbeck, A.R. Encounters between Lar gibbons (Hylobates lar) and Binturongs (Arcticitis binturong). Folia Primatol. [J]. 1998.69:392-396.
[193] 蒋学龙,马世来,王应祥.黑长臂猿 (Hylobates concolor)对人类和非人类捕食者的回避行为人类学学报. 1994.02.
[194] Cowlishaw, G, Trade-offs between foraging and predation risk determine habitat use in a desert baboon population. Anim. Behav. [J].1997.53:667-686.
[195] Ahsan, M. F. (2000). Socio-ecology of the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) in two forests of Bangladesh.[M]. In The Apes: Challenges for the 21st Century. Brookfield Zoo,Chicago Zoological Park.Chicago, pp.286-299.
[196] Alfred. J. R. B., & Sati, J. P. (1987). Sexual behaviour in the Hylobates hoolock.International Journal of Primatology.[J]. 8. 530.
[197] Olivers, D. J. (1978). Sexual behavior of wild siamang. In D. J. Chivers, & J. Herbert (Eds.)[M].London: Academic Press.Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol. 1: Behaviour (pp.609-610).
[198] Mootnick, A. R., & Nadler, R. D. (1997). Sexual behavior of maternally separated gibbons (Hylobates spp.). Developmental Psycholbiology. 31.149-161.
[199] Yang, M. (1998). The mating behaviour of captive Hoolock Gibbons. Chinese Wildlife, 19,33.
[200] Mootnick. A. R., & Baker, E. (1994). Masturbation in captive Hylobates (gibbons). Zoo Biology, 13, 345-353. doi:10.1002/zoo.l430130408.
[201] [207] Robbins, M. M. (1999). Male mating patterns in wild multimale mountain gorilla groups. Animal Behaviour, 57, 1013-1020, Medline. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.1063.
[202] Geissmann. T. (1983). Female capped gibbon (Hylobates pileatus Gray 1891) sings male song. Journal of Human Evolution, 12, 667-671. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(83)80006-2.
[203] Lukas, K. E., Barkauskas, R. T., Maher, S. A., Jacobs, B. A., Bauman, J. E., Henderson, A.J., et al. (2002). Longitudinal study of delayed reproductive success in a pair of white-cheeked gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys). Zoo Biology, 21.413-434. doi:10.1002/zoo.10040.
[204] Palombit, R. A. (1995). Longitudinal patterns of reproduction in wild female siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) and white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar). International Journal of Primatology, 16, 739-760. doi:10.1007/BF02735718.
[205] Mitani, J. (1984) The behavioral regulation of monogamy in gibbons (Hylobates muelleri).Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 15(3)225-229.
[206] Palombit, R. A. (1994a). Extra-pair copulations in a monogamous ape. Animal Behaviour,47. 721-723. doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1097.
[208] Maestripieri, D., & Roney, J. R. (2005). Primate copulation calls and postcopulatory female choice. Behavioral Ecology. 16. 106-113. doi:10.1093/beheco/arh120.
[209] Leighton, D. R. (1986). Gibbons: Territoriality and monogamy. In B. B. Smuts, D. L.Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, & T. T. Struhsaker (Eds.), Primate Societies (pp.135-145). Chicago:Chicago University Press.
[210] Palombit, R. A. (1994b). Dynamic pair bonds in hylobatids: Implications regarding monogamous social systems. Behaviour, 128, 65-98. doi:10.1163/156853994X00055.
[211] Choudhury, A. (1990) Population dynamics of Hoolock (Hylobates hoolock) in Assam,India. Am. J. Primatol., 20, 37-41.
[212] Sommer, V. & Reichard, U. (2000) Rethinking monogamy: the gibbon case. In Primate Males: Causes and Consequences of Variation in Group Composition (ed. P.M.Kappeler).[M].Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp.159-168.
[213] Wu, W., Wang. X. M., Claro, F., Ding, Y. Z., Souris, A-C., Wang, C. D.,Wang, C. H., &Berzins, R. The current status of the Hainan black-crested gibbon Nomascus sp. cf. nasutus hainanus in Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan, China. Oryx, [J]. 2004. 38 (4):452-456.
[214] Brockelman, W. Y.. Social behaviour of gibbons. In Preuschoft, H., Chivers, D., Brocklman,W., and Creel, N. (eds.). The Lesser Apes. [M]. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland,1984. pp. 285-290.
[215] Bartlett T. Q. Intragroup and Intergroup Social Interactions in White-Handed Gibbons.International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 2003. 24(2): 239-259.
[216] Ellefson, J. O.. Territorial behavior in the common white-handed gibbon, Hylobates lar Linn,in PRIMATES: STUDIES IN ADAPTATION AND VARABILITY. P.C. Jay, ed. [M]. New York,Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968. pp. 180-199.
[217] Ellefson, J. O. A natural history of white-handed gibbons in the Malayan peninsula. In Rumbaugh, D. M. (ed.), Gibbon and Siamang, Vol. 3. S.[M]. Karger, Basel, Switzerland, 1974. pp.1-136.
[218] Palombit, R. A. "Lethal Territorial Aggression in a White-Handed Gibbon." American Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1993. 31:311-318.
[219] Reichard, U. and V. Sommer "Group Encounters in Wild Gibbons (Hylobate lar): Agonism,Affiliation, and the Concept of Infanticide." Behavior. [J]. 1997.134: 1135-1174.
[220] Raemaekers, J. J. and P. M. Raemaekers "Field Playback of Loud Calls to Gibbons (Hylobates lar): Territorial, Sex-specific and Species-specific Responses." Animal Behaviour, [J] 1985.33:481-493.
[221] Bramblett, C. A. Patterns of Primate Behavior. [M]. Palo Alto, Mayfield Publishing Company. 1976.
[222] Islam, M.A & M. M. Feeroz "Ecology of Hoolock Gibbon of Bangladesh." Primates. [J].1992. 33(4): 451-464.
[223] Tenaza, R.R.; Tilson, R.L. Human predation and kloss's gibbon (Hylobates klossii) sleeping trees in Siberut Island, Indonesia. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY. [J].1985.8:299-308.
[224] Tilson, R.L. On the behavior of hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) during different seasons in Assam, India. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. [J].1979.76:1-16.
[225] Watanabe, K. Variations in group composition and population density of the two sympatric Mentawaion leaf-mongkeys. Primates. [J]. 1981. 22:145-160.
[226] Cheney, D.L.; Wrangham, R.W. Predation. In PRIMATE SOCIETIES. [M]. B.B. Smuts;D.L. Cheney; R.M. Seyfarth; R.W. Wrangham; T.T. Struhsaker, eds. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987. pp. 227-249
[227] Gittins, S.P. Feeding and ranging in the agile gibbon. FOLIA PRIMATOLOGICA. [J].1982.38:39-71.
[228] Payne, J.B. Competitors. In Chivers D.J. ed. Malayan Forest Primates: Ten years study in a tropical forest. [M] .New York, Plenum Press. 1980. pp. 261-277.
[229] Tilson, R.L. Tenaza, R.R. Interspecific spacing between gibbons (Hylobates klossii) and langurs (Presbytis potenziani) on Siberut Island, Indonesia. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY. [J]. 1982.2:355-361.
[230] Whitington, C. Interactions between lar gibbons and pig-tailed macaques at fruit sources. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY. [J]. 1992.26:61- 64.
[231] Nettelbeck A.R. Sightings of binturongs Arctictis binturong in Khao Yai National Park,Thailand. Small Carnivore Conserv. [J]. 1997.16:22-24.
[232] MacKinnon J. and K. MacKinnon. The formation of a new gibbon group. Primates. [J].1977.18:701-708.
[234] van Schaik C.P, van Hooff J. On the ultimate causes of primate social systems. Behaviour.[J]. 1983.85:91-117.
[235] Mitani, J. C. Experimental field studies of Asian ape social systems. International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1990.11: 103-126.
[236] Mootnick, A. R., Baker, E., and Sheeran, L. Incest in captive Hylobates Gibbons).Presented to the Animal Behavior Society annual meeting. 1994.
[237] Uhde, N. & V. Sommer Anti-predatory behaviour in gibbons (Hylobates lar, Khao Yai /Thailand), in: Lynne Miller (ed.), Eat or be eaten? Predation Sensitive Foraging. [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. (2002). pp. 268-291
[238] RAJPUROHIT, L.S. & SOMMER, V. Sex differences in mortality among langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Folia Primatol. [J]. 1991. 56: 17-27.
[239] Caro, T. M. Pursuit-deterrence revisited. Trends in Ecology and Evolution [J]. 1995. 10:500-503.
[240] Harvey, P. H., and P. J. Greenwood. Anti-predator defence strategies: some evolutionary problems, in J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies, editors. Behavioural Ecology: an evolutionary approach.[M]. Sunderland, Mass., U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. 1978. pp129-151
[241] Zahavi, A. Mate selection: A selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology [J].1975.53:205-213.
[242] Dunbar, R.I.M., Dunbar, E.P., Ecological relations and niche separation between sympatric terrestrial primates in Ethiopia. Folia Primatol. [J]. 1974.21: 36-61.
[243] Haimoff, E. H. Occurrence of anti-resonance in the song of the siamang (Hylobates syndactylus). American Journal of Primatology [J]. 1983b. 5: 249-256.
[244]Haimoff, E. H. Acoustic and organizational features of gibbon songs. In Preuschoft, H.;Chivers, D. J.; Brockelman, W. Y. & Creel, N. (Eds.). The lesser apes. Evolutionary and behavioural biology [M]. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 1984a. (pp. 333-353).
[245]Haimoff, E. H. The organization of song in the agile gibbon (Hylobates agilis). Folia Primatologica [J]. 1984b. 42:42-61
[246] Geissmann, T., and Orgeldinger, M. The relationship between duet songs and pair bonds in siamangs, Hylobates syndactylus. Animal Behaviour [J]. 2000. 60: 805-809.
[247] Geissmann, T. & Orgeldinger, M. Pair bond and duet songs in siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus). In Taborsky, M. & Taborsky, B. (Eds.), Advances in Ethology, Vol. 32: Contributions to the XXV International Ethological Conference[C]. Vienna, Austria, 20-27 August, 1997. pp123.
[248] Lan, D. Y. Feeding and vocal behaivours of black gibbons (Hylobates concolor) in Yunnan:A preliminary study. Folia Primatol.[J]. 1993. 60: 94-105.
[249] Haimoff, E.H. (1983) Gibbon songs: an acoustical, organizational and behavioural analysis.Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge.
[250] Marler, P. Tenaza, R. Signaling behavior of apes with special reference to vocalization. In:How animals communicate, Sebeok, T. A. (eds.). [M].Indiana University Press, Bloomington and London. 1977. pp. 965-1033.
[251] Goustard, M. Patterns and function of loud calls in the Concolor gibbon In: The lesser apes.Evolutionary and behavioural biology, Preuschoft, H.; Chivers, D. J.; Brockelman, W. Y. & Creel,N. (eds.). [M].Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1984. pp. 404-415.
[252] Farabaugh, S. M. The ecological and social significance of duetting. In Kroodsma, D. E.;Miller, E. H. & Ouellet, H. (Eds.), Acoustic communication in birds.[M].New York and London:Academic Press. 1982. pp. 85-124.
[253] Geissmann, T. & Orgeldinger, M. Duet or divorce! - Duett or erScheidung! Folia Primatologica. [J]. 1998: 69: 283.
[254] Cowlishaw G Song function in gibbons. Behaviour. [J]. 1992.121: 131-153.
[2] Thomas, O. Note on the gibbon of the island of Hainan (Hylobates hainanus, sp. n.). Ann. Mag.Hist,[J].1892,9(6), 145-146.
[3] Pocock, R. I. Observations upon a female specimen of the Hainan Gibbon (Hylobates hainanus), now living in the society's gardens. Proceedings of the Zoological Society, London [J]. 1905(2): 169-180.
[4][27] Delacour,J.La systematique des Gibbons Indochinois. Mammalia.[J].1951.15: 118-123. (In French.)
[5] Chivers, D. J. The lesser apes. In: Primate Conservation (eds. Prince Rainier III of Monaco & G H., Bourne) [M]. Academic Press, London and New York 1977 pp.539-598.
[6] Groves, C. P. Systematics and phylogeny of gibbons. In Gibbon and siamang (eds. D.M.Rumbaugh). [M]. Karger, Basel & New York. 1972. pp.1-89.
[7] Marshall,J.T.& Sugardjito,J. Gibbon systematics. In Comparative primate biology, Vol. 1:Systematics, evolution, and anatomy (eds. D. R. Swindler & J. Erwin) [M]. Alan R. Liss, New York. 1986.pp.137-185.
[8]Geissmann Geissmann, T. Gibbon systematics and species identification. International Zoo News. [J]. 1995.42:467-501.
[9] Geissmann, T. New sounds from the crested gibbons (Hylobates concoior group): First results of a systematic revision. Zissler, D. (ed.), In Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft: Kurzpublikationen- Short Communications, 90. Jahresversammlung 1997 in Mainz Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart.[C]. 1997. pp.170.
[11] Geissmann, T.; La Quang Trung; Trinh Dinh Hoang; Vu Dinh Thong; Dang Ngoc Can & Pham Duc Tien. Rarest ape species rediscovered in Vietnam. Asian Primates.[J]. 2003.8(3-4):8-10.
[12] Brandon-Jones, D., Eudey, A. A., Geissmann, T., Groves, C. P., Melnick, D. J., Morales, J. C.,Shekelle M. and Stewart, C.-B. Asian Primate Classification. International Journal of Primatology [J].2004.25(1):97-164.
[13] Su, B., Kressirer, P., Monda. K., Wang W., Jiang. X., Wang. Y., Woodruff, D. S. & Zhang Y.Mitochondrial DNA variation and Mlecular Phylogeny of Chinese Concoior Gibbons with non-invasive DNA genotyping. Science in China[J]. 1996. 26(5): 414-419. (In China)
[15] [17] Liu, Z.; Yu, S.; Yuan, Xi. The resource of the Hainan black gibbon at its present situation. Chinese Wildlife.[J]. 1984.6:1-4 (in Chinese).
[16] Zhou, J., Wei F. W., Li, M., Zhang, J. F., Wang, D. L. & Pan, R. L., Hainan black-crested gibbon is headed for extinction. International Journal of Primatology. [J] . 2005.26(2): 453-465.
[18] Geissmann, T. and Chan, B. The Hainan Black Crested Gibbon: Most critically endangered ape. Folia Primatologica .[C]. 2004.75 (suppl. 1): 116.
[19] Mitani J.C. The behavioral regulation of monogamy in gibbons. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. [J] .1984. 15:225-229.
[20] Palombit R.A. Infanticide and the evolution of pair bonds in nonhuman primates. Evol.Anthropol. [J] .1999.7:117-129.
[21] van Schaik C.P, Dunbar R.M. The evolution of monogamy in large primates: a new hypothesis and some crucial tests. Behaviour. [J] .1990.115:30-62.
[22] Tilson RL. Monogamous mating systems of gibbons and langurs in the Mentawai Islands,Indonesia.[D]. Davis: University of California. 1980.
[23] Wittenberger J.F. & Tilson R.L. The evolution of monogamy: hypotheses and evidence.Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. [J]. 1980. 11:197-232.
[24] [44] Brockelman WY, Srikosamatara S. Maintenance and evolution of social structure in gibbons. In: Prueschoft H, Chivers DJ, Brockelman WY, Creel N, editors. The lesser apes:evolution, behaviour, and biology. [C]. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 1984.pp.283-323.
[25] Chivers D.J. The siamang in Malaysia. In: Contributions to primatology. [M]. Basel: Karger.1974. pp.1-335.
[26] Ellefson, J.O. A natural history of white-handed gibbons in the Malayan Peninsula. In D.M.Rumbaugh (ed.), Gibbon and Siamang. Vol. 3: Natural History, Social Behavior, Reproduction.Vocalization.[M]. Prehension. S. Karger, Basel, 1974. pp.1-136.
[28] Carpenter R. A field study in Siam of the behavior and social relations of the gibbon (Hylobates lar). Comp. Psychol. Monogr. [J].1940.16:1-212.
[29] [36] Liu Zhenhe, ZhangYongzu, Jiang Haisheng, Southwick C. Population structure of Hylobates concolor in Bawanglin Nature Reserve, Hainan, China. Am. J. Primatol.[J]. 1989.19:247-254.
[30] Liu, Z.; Jiang, H.; Zhang, Y; Liu, Y; Chou, T.; Manry, D.; & Southwick, C. Field report on the Hainan Gibbon. Primate Conservation.[C]. 1987.8: 49-50.
[31] Song, X., Jiang, H.; Zhang, J., Chen, Q., Wang, C. and Lin, W. A survey of the hainan gibbon (Hylobates concolor hainanus) in Hainan. In Chinese zoology society (Eds): Zoological studies in China.[C]. 1999. pp. 696-701.
[32] [33] [42] Jiang, H. S., Song, X., Zhang, J., Wang, C., Wang C. and Chen, K. The population dynamic of Hylobates concolor hainanus in Bawangling National Nature Reserve in Hainan Island.1999. (unpublished report)
[34][54]Leighton D.R.Gibbons:territoriality and monogamy.In:Smuts BB,Cheney DL,Seyfarth RM,Wrangham RW,Struhsaker TT,editors.Primate societies.[M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press.1987.pp.135-145.
[35]Xu,L.;Liu,Z.;Yu,S.et al.The birds and mammals of Hainan Island.[M].Beijing:Science Press,1983.pp.314-316.
[37]Haimoff E.H,Yang J.Y,He S.J,Chen N.Census and survey of wild black crested gibbons (Hylobates concolor concolor).Folia Primatol.[J].1986.46:205-214.
[38]Haimoff,E.Yang,X.J.He,S.J.Chen.N.Preliminary observations of wild black-crested gibbons(Hylobates concolor concolor) in Yunnan province,People's Republic of China.Primates.[J].1987.28:319-335.
[39]Bleisch WV,Chen N.Ecology of wild back-crested gibbons(Hylobates concolor) in China with a reconsideration of evidence of polygyny.Primates.[J].1991.32:539-548.
[40]Jiang X.L.,Ma S.L.,Wang Y.X.,Sheeran L.K.,Poirier F.E.,Wang Q.Group size and composition of Black crested gibbon(Hylobates concolor) Zoological Research.[J].1994.15(2):15-22.
[41]蒋学龙,马世来,王应祥等.黑长臂猿(Hylobates concolor)的配偶制及其与行为、生态和进化的关系.人类学学报.[J].1994.13(4):344-352.
[43]Fan P.E,Jiang X.L.,Liu C.M.,Luo,W.S.Polygynous mating system and behevioural reason of black crested gibbon(Nomascus concolor jingdongensis) at Dazhaizi,Mt.Wuliang,Yurman,China Zoological Research.[J].2006.27(2):216-220.
[45]Fuentes A.Re-evaluating primate monogamy.Am.Anthropol.[J].1999a.100:890-907.
[46]Fuentes A.Variable social organization in primates:what can looking at primate groups tell us about the evolution of plasticity in primate societies? In:Dolhinow PD,Fuentes A,editors.The nonhuman primates.Mountain View:[M].Mayfield Publishing Co.1999b.pp.183-189.
[47]Fuentes A.Pair bonds in lemurs,monkeys,gibbons and humans? A preliminary evaluation of semantics and reality in pair bond models.Am.J.Phys.Anthropol.[J].1999c.[Suppl]28:129.
[48]Fuentes A.The variable evolution of pairbonds in human and nonhuman primates.Am.J.Phys.Anthropol.[J].2000.[Suppl]30:153.
[49]Chivers,D.J.,ed.(1980) "Malayan Forest Primates:Ten Years'Study in Tropical Rain Forest".[M].Plenum Press,New York.
[50][154]李茂盛,胡灿坤.浅议云南长臂猿栖息地的保护与恢复.林业调查规划.[J].2003,28(2):91-94.
[51]舒梅.滇南热带雨林榕树的研究综述.思茅师范高等专科学校学报.[J].2005,21(3).
[52]Chivers D.J.The swinging singing apes:fighting for food and family in far-east forests.IN The Apes:Challenge for the 21th Century.[M].2000,1-28.
[53]Ahsan,M.F.Behavioural ecology of the hooiock gibbon(Hylobates hoolock) in Bangladesh. [D],University of Cambridge.1994.
[54][58]Leighton,M.and Leighton,D.R.Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rainforest.In:Tropical Rain Forest:Ecology and Management(Sutton,S.L.,Whitmore,T.C.and Chadwick,A.C.ed.).[M].Blackwell Scientific Publications,Oxford.1983.pp.181-196.
[55]林家怡,莫罗坚,庄学影等.海南黑冠长臂猿主要摄食植物的区系分布多样性研究.热带林业.[J].2006,34(3):20-24.
[56]Gittins S.P.Feeding and ranging in the agile gibbon.Folia Primatol.[J].1982.38:39-71.
[57]Bartlett TQ.Feeding and ranging of the whitehanded gibbon(Hylobates lar) in Khao Yai National Park,Thailand.[D].St.Louis:Washington University.1999a.
[59]Ahsan,M.F.Behavioural ecology oftbe hoolock gibbon(Hylobates hoolock) in Bangladesh.[D].University of Cambridge.1994.
[60]Waterman,P.G.,J.A.M.Ross,and D.B.McKey.Factors affecting levels of some phenolic compounds,digestibility,and nitrogen content of the mature leaves of Baxteria fistulosa (Passifloraceae).Journal of Chemical Ecology.[J].1984.10:387-401.
[61]Waterman,P.G.A comparison of the floristics and leaf chemistry of the tree flora in two Malaysian rain forests and the influence of leaf chemistry on populations of colobine monkeys in the Old World.Biological Journal of the Linnean Society [J].1988.34(1).
[62]Waterman & Choo,Digestibility,digestion-inhibitors and nutrients of herbaceous foliage and green stems from an African montane flora and comparison with other tropical flora.Oecologia [J].1983.64(2).
[63]Waterman P.G,Choo G.M.The effects of digestibility-reducing compounds in leaves on food selection by some Coiobinae.Malays Appl Biol.[J].1981.10:147-162.
[64]Waterman P.G,Mbi C.N,McKey D.B,Gaxtlan J.S.African rain forest vegetation and rumen microbes:phenolic compounds and nutrients as correlates of digestibility.Oecologia.[J].1980.47:22-33.
[65]Zhang,Y.Z;Quan,G.;Yang,D.;Liu,Z.;Sheeran,L.K.Population parameters of the black gibbon in China in Xia,W.;Zhang,Y.(ed.) Primate Research and Conservation.[C].China Forestry Publishing House,Beijing,1995.pp.203-220.
[66]林家怡等,海南黑冠长臂猿栖息地群落优势种及采食植物生态位特性.华南农业大学学报.[J].2006.27(4):52-57.
[67]Bartlett T.Q.The gibbons.In:Dolhinow PD,Fuentes A,editors.The nonhuman primates.Mountain View.[M].Mayfield Publishing Co.1999b.pp.44-49.
[68]Chivers D.J.Feeding and ranging in gibbons:a summary.In:Prueschoft H,Chivers DJ,Brockelman WY,Creel N,editors.The lesser apes:evolution,behaviour,and biology.[M].Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.1984.pp.267-283.
[69]Fellowes J.R,Bosco C,Lok P,Jiang Z,Shenghua C,Shibin Y,Chit N.S.Current Status of the Hainan Gibbon(Nomascus hainanus):Progress of Population Monitoring and Other Priority Actions.Asian Primates Journal.[J].2008.1(1):4-11.
[70]Chart B.P.L,Fellowes J.R,Geissmann T,Zhang J.Hainan gibbon status survey and conservation action plan,version 1(last updated November 2005).Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden Technical Report.2005.
[71]汪松,中国濒危动物红皮书-兽类.[M].科学出版社.1998.
[72]汪松、解焱,中国物种红色名录-哺乳类.[M].科学出版社.2003.
[73]海南霸王岭林业局,北京林业大学自然保护区研究中心,海南霸王岭国家自然保护区管理处.海南霸王岭国家自然保护区综合考察报告.[C].
[74]Takacs,Z.,Morales,J.C.,Geissmann,T.and Melnick,D.J.A complete species-level phylogeny of the Hylobatidae based on mitochondrial ND3-ND4 gene sequences.Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.[J].2005.36:456-467.
[75]Preuschoft,H.,Chivers,D.J.,Brockelman,W.and Creel,N.(eds.).The Lesser Apes-Evolutionary and Behavioural Biology.[M].Edinburgh University Press,Edinburgh.1984.
[76]Brandon-Jones,D.,Eudey,A.A.,Geissmann,T.,Groves,C.P.,Melnick,D.J,Morales,J.C.,Shekelle & M,Stewart,C.B.Asian Primate Classification.International Journal of Primatology.[J].2004.25(1).97-164.
[77]Geissmann,T.Taxonomy and evolution of gibbons.In:Soligo,C.,Anzenberger,G.,and Martin,R.D.(eds.),Anthropology and primatology into the third millennium:The Centenary Congress of the Z(u｜¨)rich Anthropological Institute(Evolutionary Anthropology Vol.11,Supplement 1).[J].Wiley-Liss,New York,2002a.pp.28-31.
[78]Geissmann,T.Duet-splitting and the evolution of gibbon songs.Biological Reviews.[J].2002b.77:57-76.
[79]Hall,L.M.Jones,D.S.and Wood,B.A.Evolution of the Gibbon Subgenera Inferred from Cytochrome b DNA Sequence Data.Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.[J].1998.10(3):281-286.
[80]Roos,C.& Geissmann,T.Molecular phylogeny of the major hylobatid devisions.Molecular Phyiogenetics and Evolution.[J].2001.19(3):486-494.
[81]Zhang,Y.Mitochondrial DNA sequence evolution and phylogenetic relationships of gibbons.Acta Genetica Sinica.[J].1997.24.231-237.
[82]Roos,C.Molecular evolution and systematics of Vietnamese primates.In:Conservation of Primates in Vietnam,T.Nadler,U.Streicher,and T.L.Ha(eds.).[M].Hanoi:Haki Publishing.2004.pp.23-28.
[83]Dao Van Tien.On the North Indochinese gibbons(Hylobates concolor)(Primates:Hylobatidae) in North Vietnam.Journal of Human Evolution.[J].1983.12.367-372.
[84]Ma,S.& Wang,Y.The taxonomy and distribution of the gibbons in southern China and its adjacent region - with description of three new subspecies.Zoological Research.[J]. 1986.7:393-410.
[85] Ma, S., Wang, Y., & Poirier, F. E. Taxonomy, distribution, and status of gibbons (Hylobates) in southern China and adjacent areas. Primates.[J].1988.29 (2): 277-286.
[86] Groves, C. P. Speciation in living hominoid primates. In Species, species concepts, and primate evolution (eds. W. H. Kimbel & L. B. Martin). [M]. Plenum Press, New York & London.1993.pp.109-121.
[87] Groves, C. P. & Wang, Y. The gibbons of the subgenus Nomascus (Primates, Mammalia).Zoological Research.[J].1990. 11.147-154.
[88] Groves, C. P. The What, Why and How of Primate Taxonomy.International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 2004.25 (5).
[89] Su, B., Monda, K., Wang W., Jiang, X., Wang, Y., Woodruff, D. S. & Zhang Y. Molecular Phylogeny of Chinese Concolor Gibbons (Subgenus Nomascus) - using non-invasive DNA genotyping. In: Xia, W. and Zhang, Y. (eds.), Primae Research and Conservation. [C].China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, 1995. pp.55-63.
[90] Fooden, J., Quan, G & Luo, Y. Gibbon distribution in China. Acta Theriologica Sinica. [J].1987. 7(3): 161-167.
[91] Nadler, T. Rediscovery of the Eastern Black Crested Gibbon Nomascus sp. cf. n. nasutus in Vietnam. The Gibbon's Voice. [J]. 2003. 6(1):1-3.
[92] La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang. Status review of the Cao Vit Black-crested Gibbon (Nomascus nasutus nasutus) in Vietnam. In: Nadler, T., Streicher, U. & Ha Thang Long (eds),Conservation of Primates in Vietnam.[M]. Hanoi. 2004. pp.3-28.
[93] Mootnick, A., Rylands, A.B. and Konstant, W.R. Hainan Black-crested Gibbon. In:Mittermiere, R.A., Valladares-Padua, C, Rylands, A.B., Euday, A.A., Butynski, T.M., Ganzhorn,J.U., Kormos, R., Aguiar, J.M. and Walker, S. (eds.), The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2004-2006. PSG, IPS, CI, 2005.30-31.
[94] Geissmann, T.; La Quang Trung; Trinh Dinh Hoang; Vu Dinh Thong; Dang Ngoc Can & Pham Duc Tien Rarest ape species rediscovered in Vietnam. Asian Primates. [J].2003.8(3-4):8-10.
[95] Groves, C.P. Taxonomy and biogeography of primates in Vietnam and neighbouring regions.In: Nadler, T., Streicher, U. & Ha Thang Long (eds), Conservation of Primates in Vietnam. [M].Hanoi, 2004.15-22.
[96] Kunckel d'Herculais, J. Le Gibbon du Tonkin. Science et Nature. [J]. 1884. 2(33): 86-90.
[97] Wang Y. A complete checklist of mammal species and subspecies in China - A taxonomic and geographic reference. [M].China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, 2003.pp.394.
[98] Geissmann, T. A Female Black Gibbon, Hylobates concolor Subspecies, from Northeastern Vietnam. International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1989.10(5): 455-476.
[99] Chan, B.P.L. and Ng, S.-C. Report of a Rapid Biodiversity Assessment at Trung Khanh Proposed Nature Reserve, Cao Bang Province, Northeast Vietnam, 20 to 24 October 2005.Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden Technical Report: No.4. KFBG, Hong Kong SAR, 2006. pp.ii +18.
[100] Haimoff, E. The organization of song in the Hainan black gibbon (Hylobates concolor hainanus).Primates, [J]. 1984. 25: 225-235.
[101] Brandon-Jones, D. The Pros and Cons of a Consensus List of Asian Primate Subspecies.Primae Conservation. [J].2006. 20: 89-93.
[102] Standard, C.B. The Subspecies Concept in Primatology: The Case of Mountain Gorillas.Primates. [J]. 2001. 42(4): 309-318.
[103] Marshall, J. Marshall, E.Gibbons and their territorial songs. Science. [J]. 1976.193:235-237.
[104] Caldecott, J. Habitat quality and populations of two sympatric gibbons (Hylobatidae) on a mountain in Malaya. Folia primatol. [J]. 1980.33:291-309.
[105] Haimoff, E.H.; Yang, X.J.; He, S. J.; Chen, N. Census and survey of wild black-crested gibbons (Hylobates concolor concolor) in Yunnan province, People's Republic of China. Folia primatol. [J]. 1986.46:205-214.
[106] Marsh, C; Wilson, W. A survey of primates in peninsular Malaysia, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. 1981.
[107] Brockelman, W.; Srikosamatara, S. The use of territorial vocalizations in surveying for pileated gibbons. Wth Congr. Int. Primatol. Soc..[C].1979.pp.l06-107.
[108] Brockelman, W. and Srikosamatara, S. Estimation of density of gibbon groups by use of loud songs. Am. J. Primatol. [J]. 1993.2993-108.
[109] 颜家安,海南岛生态环境变迁研究.[M].科技出版社. 2008.
[110] Mammalogical Society of China, Caring for Primates Abstracts of the XIXth Congress of the International Primatological Society, 4~(th)-9~(th) August, Beijing, China. 2002.
[111] Li, B. G, Jia, Z. Y., Pan, R. L., Ren, B. P. Changes in distribution of the snub-nosed monkey in China. Marsh, L.K. (ed.) Primates in fragments ecology and conservations. 18th Congress of the International-Primatological-Society Adelaide, Australia, Int Primatol Soc. [C]. New York,Plenum Public, 2003. pp.29-51.
[112] Hainan Bureau of Statistic, Hainan Statistical Yearbook 2003, China Statistical Press. 2003.
[113] Goodman, D. The demography of chance extinction. In: Soule, M. E. ed. Viable Population for Conservation. [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1987.11-34.
[114] Ballou, J. Demographic processes in small and fragmented population. In: Florida Key Deer Population Viability Assessment. Florida: Population viability analysis workshop.[J]. 1990.30-39.
[115] Lande, R. Barrowclough, G. F. Effective population size, genetic variation, and their use in population management. In: Soule, M. E. ed. Viable population for conservation. [M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. 1987.pp. 125-140.
[116]Lacy,R.C.Loss of genetic diversity from managed populations:Interacting effects of drift,mutation,immigration,selection,and population subdivision.Conserv.Biol.[J].1987.1:143-158.
[117]Boice,M.S.Population viability analysis.Ann.Rev.Ecol.Syst.[J].1992.23:481-506.
[118]Lacy,R.C.VORTEX:A computer simulation model for population viability analysis.Wildl.Res.[J].1993.20:45-65.
[119]Lindenmayer,D.B.,Lacy,R.C.,Thomas,V.C.et al.Predictions of the impacts of changes in population size and environmental variability on leadbeater's possum,Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy(Marsupialia:Petauridae) using population viability analysis:an application of the computer Vortex.Wildl.Res.[J].1993.20:67-86.
[120]魏辅文,胡锦矗,大熊猫种群生存力初步分析 见张安居何光晰主编 成都国际大熊猫保护学术研讨会论文集.[C].成都四川科学技术出版社.1994.116-122.
[121]张先锋,王丁,王克维,涡旋模型及其在白暨豚种群管理中的应用 生物多样性.[J].1994.23:133-139.
[122]Zhou Jiang et al.,Reproductive Characters and Mating Behaviour of Wild Nomascus hainanus.International Journal of Primatology.[J].2008.29:1037-1046.
[123]黄久香,王通,庄雪影.广东增城主要森林群落优势种群的生态位研究.华南农业大学学报:自然科学版.[J].2003,24(4):52-55.
[124]胡玉佳,丁小球.海南岛坝王岭热带天然林植物物种多样性研究生物多样性.[J].2000.8(4):370-377.
[125]余世孝.非度量多维测度及其在群落分类中的应用,植物生态学报.[J].1995.19(2):128136.
[126]臧润国,杨彦承,蒋有绪.海南岛霸王岭热带山地雨林群落结构及树种多样性特征的研究.植物生态学报.[J].2001,25(3):270-275.
[127]林益名.海南霸王岭山地雨林的群落的结构特征.生态学报.[J].1992.
[128]戴小华,余世孝等 海南岛霸王岭热带雨林的种间分离.植物生态学报.[J].2003.3(14):22-26.
[129]张宏达,海南岛植被分类方案.植物生态学与地植物学丛刊.[J].1963,1(1-2):141-142.
[130]臧润国,蒋有绪,余世孝.海南霸王岭热带山地雨林森林循环与树种多样性动态.生态学报.[J].2002.22(4).
[131]Chivers D.J.The swinging singing apes:Fighting for food and family in far-east forests.The Apes:Challenges for the 21st Century.[M].Chicago Zoological Society,Brookfield,Illinois,U.S.A.2001.1-28.
[132]Mather,R.J.A field study of hybrid gibbons in Central Kalimantan,Indonesia.Unpublished Ph.D.thesis,[D].University of Cambridge.1992.
[133]扈宇,许宏伟,杨德华.白颊长臂猿的食性研究.生态学报.[J].1990.10(2):155-159.
[134][135]Chivers,D.J.and Davies,A.G.Abundance of primates in the Krau Game Reserve,Peninsular Malaysia.In "The Abundance of Animals in Malesian Rain Forests"(A.G.Marshall,ed.).[C].Miscell.Series,no.22,Dept.of Geography,University of Hull(Aberdeen-Hull Symposia on Malesian Ecology).1979.pp.9-32.
[136][142]魏作东,杨大荣,彭艳琼等.榕树在西双版纳热带雨林生态系统中的作用.生态学杂志,[J].2005,24(3):233:237.
[137]许再富.榕树-滇南热带雨林生态系统一类关键植物.生物多样性.[J].1994.2(1):21-23.
[138]杨大荣,李朝达,杨兵.西双版纳热带雨林中榕树动物群落结构与多样性研究.动物学研究.[J].1997,18(2):189-196.
[139][140][153]赵庭周,杨大荣,许继宏.榕树在西双版纳热带雨林中的地位和综合利用价值.林业科学研究.[J].2001,14(4):441-445.
[141]O'Brien,T.G.,M.F.Kinnaird,E.S.Dierenfeld,N.L.Conklin-Brittain,S.C.Silver,and R.W.Wrangham.What's so special about figs:a pantropical mineral analysis.Nature.[J].1998.392:668.
[143]杨大荣,彭艳琼,张光明,等.西双版纳热带雨林聚果榕隐头果的昆虫群落结构与多样性.应用生态学报.[J].2003.14(10):1591-1596.
[144]王学君.幼长臂猿的人工饲养[J].野生动物.1992.3:46-47.
[145]潘阳.笼养白眉长臂猿的繁殖初探.四川动物.[J].2000.19(2):88-89.
[146]李国锋.雄性白颊长臂猿的饲养.经济动物学报.[J].2001.5(2):39-42.
[147]邹如金,季维智,杨上川等.滇金丝猴驯养的初步研究.动物学研究.[J].1994,15(2):87-92.
[148]张莉.日本林蛙食性分析.[J].动物学杂志,1987,22(6):22-24.
[149]刘丙万,蒋志刚.粪样在野生动物研究中的作用.动物学研究.[J].2002,23(1):71-76.
[150]蓝道英,云南西南地区黑长臂猿群构成、生态和行为的初步研究.动物学研究.[J]1989,10(增刊):119-126.
[151]Shanahan M.S,Compton S.G,Coder R.Fig-eating by vertebrate frllgivores:a global review Biological Review.[J].2001.76:529-572.
[152]Gittins,S.P and Raemaekers,J.J.Siamang,lar and agile gibbons.In:Malayan Forest Primates:Ten Years Study in Tropical Rain Forests(Chivers D.J.,ed.).[M].Plenum Press,New York.1980.pp.63-105.
[155]白冰,周伟,艾怀森,等.高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿春季栖息地利用.动物学研究.[J].2007.28(2):179-185.
[156]Burt,W.H.,Territoriality and home range concepts as applied to mammals.Journal of Mammology.[J].1943.24:346-352.
[157]Teichroeb,J.A.,Saj,T.L.,Paterson,J.D.,Sicotte,P.,Effect of group size on activity budgets of Colobus vellerosus in Ghana.Int.J.Primatol.[J].2003.24:743-758.
[158]Terborgh,J.,Five New World Primates.Princeton University Press,Princeton,New York.1983.
[159]Guisan A,Zimmermann NE.Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology.Ecological Modelling.[J].2000.135(2-3):147-186.
[160]Kerr JT,Ostrovsky M.From space to species:ecological applications for remote sensing.Trends in Ecology & Evolution.[J].2003.18(6):299-305.
[161]赵英时等.遥感应用分析原理与方法.白春礼等主编.[M]北京:科学出版社.2003.
[162]Gontier M,Balfors B,M(o｜¨)rtberg U.Biodiversity in environmental assessment--current practice and tools for prediction.Environmental Impact Assessment Review.[J].2006.26(3):268-286.
[163]Liu J,Linderman M,Ouyang Z,An L,Yang J,Zhang H.Ecological Degradation in Protected Areas:The Case of Wolong Nature Reserve for Giant Pandas.[C].2001.pp.98-101.
[164]Xiao W,Ding W,Cui LW,Zhou RL,Zhao QK.Habitat Degradation of Rhinopithecus bieti in Yunnan,China.International Journal of Primatology.[J].2003.24(2):389-398.
[165]Wang W,Ren G.P,He Y.H.,Zhu J.G.Habitat Degradation and Conservation Status Assessment of Gallinaceous Birds in the Trans-Himalayas,China.Wildlife management.DOI:10.2193/2007-077.2008.
[166]Harrison D.J,Chapin T.G.An assessment of potential habitat for eastern timber wolves in the northeastern United States and connectivity with occupied habitat in southeastern Canada.Wildlife Conservation Society Working Paper.1997.7:1-12.
[167]Corsi F,Dupre E,Boitani L.A Large-Scale Model of Wolf Distribution in Italy for Conservation Planning.Conservation Biology.[J].1999.13(1):150-159.
[168]Osborne P.E,Alonso J.C,Bryant R.G.Modelling landscape-scale habitat use using GIS and remote sensing:a ease study with great bustards.Journal of Applied Ecology.[J].2001.38(2):458-471.
[169]Kozak K.H,Wiens J.J.Does Niche Conservatism Promote Speciation? A Case Study in North American Salamanders.Evolution.[J].2006.60(12):2604-2621.
[170]Bunn A.G,Urban D.L,Keitt T.H.Landscape connectivity:A conservation application of graph theory.Journal of Environmental Management.[J].2000.59(4):265-278.
[171]Techniques for the Study of Primate Population Ecology.Washington,D.C.National Academy Press.1981.
[172]Altmann,J.Observational study of behavior:sampling methods.Behavior.[J].1974.69:227-263.
[173]Milton,K.,May,M.L.,Body weight,diet and home range area in primates.Nature.[J]. 1976.259:459-462.
[174] Clutton-Brock, T.H., Harvey, P.H., Species differences in feeding and ranging behaviour in primates. In: Clutton-Brock, T.H.eds. Primate ecology: studies of feeding and raging behaivour in lemurs, monkeys, and apes, [M].Academic Press, London. 1977.pp.585-590.
[175] Srikosamatara and Brockelman Polygyny in a group of Pileated Gibbons via a familial route.International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1987.4.
[176] MacKinnon, J.R. and MacKinnon, K.S. Niche differentiation in a primate community. In:Malayan Forest Primates: Ten Years' Study in Tropical Rain Forest (D.J. Olivers, ed.)[M].Plenum Press, New York. 1980. pp.167-190.
[177] Palombit, R.A. Pair bonds and monogamy in wild siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) and white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) in northern Sumatra. Unpubl. Ph.Dthesis. [D]. University of California, Davis. 1992.
[178] Feeroz, M.M. and Islam, M.A. Ecology and Behaviour of Hoolock Gibbons in Bangladesh.Multidisciplinary Action Research Centre, Dhaka. 1992.
[179] Clutton-Brock, T.H., Some aspects of intraspecific variation in feeding and ranging behavior in primates. In: Clutton-Brock, T.H.eds. Primate ecology: studies of feeding and raging behaivour in lemurs, monkeys, and apes,[M]. Academic Press, London: 1977a. pp.539-556.
[180] Richard, A.F. Primates in Nature. [M]. W. H. Freeman, New York. 1985.
[181] Ahsan, F. Human impact on 2 forests of Bangladesh: A preliminary case study. In Bissonette,J.A. & Krausman, P.R. (eds.), Integrating people and wildlife for a sustainable future. Proceedings of the first International Wildlife Management Congress. [C]. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda,Maryland, 1995.pp.368-372.
[182] Fashing, P.J., Activity and ranging patterns of guerezas in the Kakamega forest: intergroup variation and implications for intragroup feeding competition. Int. J. Primatol. [J]. 2001.22:549-577.
[183] Dunbar, R.I.M., Primate Social Systems [M]. Beckenham: Croom Helm. 1988.
[184] Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., Struhsaker, T.T. Primate Societies.[M]. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1987.
[185] Srikosamatara, S. Ecology of the pileated gibbon in Southeast Thailand. In: "The Lesser Apes: Evolutionary and Behavioural Biology" (H. Preuschoft, D.J. Chivers,W.Y. Brockelman and N. Creel, eds). [M]. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1984. pp.242-257.
[186] Tilson, R.L. On the behaviour of the hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) during different seasons in Assam, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. [J].1979.76: 1-16.
[187] Raemaekers, J.J. Gibbons and trees: comparative ecology of the siamang and lar gibbons.Unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation. [D]. University of Cambridge. 1977.
[188] West, K. The ecology and behaviour of the siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) in Sumatra.Unpublished M.Sc. thesis. [D]. University of California, Davis. 1981.
[189] Whitten, A.J. The Kloss gibbon in Siberut rain forest. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, [D].University of Cambridge. 1980.
[190] Kappeler, M. The Javan silvery gibbon (Hylobates lar moloch): habitat, distribution,numbers, ecology and behaviour.Unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, [D].University of Basel. 1981.
[191] Brockelman, W.Y., U. Reichard, et al. Dispersal, Pair Formation and Social Structure in Gibbons. Behavior Ecology & Sociology. [J]. 1998.42:329-339.
[192] [233]Nettelbeck, A.R. Encounters between Lar gibbons (Hylobates lar) and Binturongs (Arcticitis binturong). Folia Primatol. [J]. 1998.69:392-396.
[193] 蒋学龙,马世来,王应祥.黑长臂猿 (Hylobates concolor)对人类和非人类捕食者的回避行为人类学学报. 1994.02.
[194] Cowlishaw, G, Trade-offs between foraging and predation risk determine habitat use in a desert baboon population. Anim. Behav. [J].1997.53:667-686.
[195] Ahsan, M. F. (2000). Socio-ecology of the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) in two forests of Bangladesh.[M]. In The Apes: Challenges for the 21st Century. Brookfield Zoo,Chicago Zoological Park.Chicago, pp.286-299.
[196] Alfred. J. R. B., & Sati, J. P. (1987). Sexual behaviour in the Hylobates hoolock.International Journal of Primatology.[J]. 8. 530.
[197] Olivers, D. J. (1978). Sexual behavior of wild siamang. In D. J. Chivers, & J. Herbert (Eds.)[M].London: Academic Press.Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol. 1: Behaviour (pp.609-610).
[198] Mootnick, A. R., & Nadler, R. D. (1997). Sexual behavior of maternally separated gibbons (Hylobates spp.). Developmental Psycholbiology. 31.149-161.
[199] Yang, M. (1998). The mating behaviour of captive Hoolock Gibbons. Chinese Wildlife, 19,33.
[200] Mootnick. A. R., & Baker, E. (1994). Masturbation in captive Hylobates (gibbons). Zoo Biology, 13, 345-353. doi:10.1002/zoo.l430130408.
[201] [207] Robbins, M. M. (1999). Male mating patterns in wild multimale mountain gorilla groups. Animal Behaviour, 57, 1013-1020, Medline. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.1063.
[202] Geissmann. T. (1983). Female capped gibbon (Hylobates pileatus Gray 1891) sings male song. Journal of Human Evolution, 12, 667-671. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(83)80006-2.
[203] Lukas, K. E., Barkauskas, R. T., Maher, S. A., Jacobs, B. A., Bauman, J. E., Henderson, A.J., et al. (2002). Longitudinal study of delayed reproductive success in a pair of white-cheeked gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys). Zoo Biology, 21.413-434. doi:10.1002/zoo.10040.
[204] Palombit, R. A. (1995). Longitudinal patterns of reproduction in wild female siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) and white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar). International Journal of Primatology, 16, 739-760. doi:10.1007/BF02735718.
[205] Mitani, J. (1984) The behavioral regulation of monogamy in gibbons (Hylobates muelleri).Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 15(3)225-229.
[206] Palombit, R. A. (1994a). Extra-pair copulations in a monogamous ape. Animal Behaviour,47. 721-723. doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1097.
[208] Maestripieri, D., & Roney, J. R. (2005). Primate copulation calls and postcopulatory female choice. Behavioral Ecology. 16. 106-113. doi:10.1093/beheco/arh120.
[209] Leighton, D. R. (1986). Gibbons: Territoriality and monogamy. In B. B. Smuts, D. L.Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, & T. T. Struhsaker (Eds.), Primate Societies (pp.135-145). Chicago:Chicago University Press.
[210] Palombit, R. A. (1994b). Dynamic pair bonds in hylobatids: Implications regarding monogamous social systems. Behaviour, 128, 65-98. doi:10.1163/156853994X00055.
[211] Choudhury, A. (1990) Population dynamics of Hoolock (Hylobates hoolock) in Assam,India. Am. J. Primatol., 20, 37-41.
[212] Sommer, V. & Reichard, U. (2000) Rethinking monogamy: the gibbon case. In Primate Males: Causes and Consequences of Variation in Group Composition (ed. P.M.Kappeler).[M].Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp.159-168.
[213] Wu, W., Wang. X. M., Claro, F., Ding, Y. Z., Souris, A-C., Wang, C. D.,Wang, C. H., &Berzins, R. The current status of the Hainan black-crested gibbon Nomascus sp. cf. nasutus hainanus in Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan, China. Oryx, [J]. 2004. 38 (4):452-456.
[214] Brockelman, W. Y.. Social behaviour of gibbons. In Preuschoft, H., Chivers, D., Brocklman,W., and Creel, N. (eds.). The Lesser Apes. [M]. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland,1984. pp. 285-290.
[215] Bartlett T. Q. Intragroup and Intergroup Social Interactions in White-Handed Gibbons.International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 2003. 24(2): 239-259.
[216] Ellefson, J. O.. Territorial behavior in the common white-handed gibbon, Hylobates lar Linn,in PRIMATES: STUDIES IN ADAPTATION AND VARABILITY. P.C. Jay, ed. [M]. New York,Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968. pp. 180-199.
[217] Ellefson, J. O. A natural history of white-handed gibbons in the Malayan peninsula. In Rumbaugh, D. M. (ed.), Gibbon and Siamang, Vol. 3. S.[M]. Karger, Basel, Switzerland, 1974. pp.1-136.
[218] Palombit, R. A. "Lethal Territorial Aggression in a White-Handed Gibbon." American Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1993. 31:311-318.
[219] Reichard, U. and V. Sommer "Group Encounters in Wild Gibbons (Hylobate lar): Agonism,Affiliation, and the Concept of Infanticide." Behavior. [J]. 1997.134: 1135-1174.
[220] Raemaekers, J. J. and P. M. Raemaekers "Field Playback of Loud Calls to Gibbons (Hylobates lar): Territorial, Sex-specific and Species-specific Responses." Animal Behaviour, [J] 1985.33:481-493.
[221] Bramblett, C. A. Patterns of Primate Behavior. [M]. Palo Alto, Mayfield Publishing Company. 1976.
[222] Islam, M.A & M. M. Feeroz "Ecology of Hoolock Gibbon of Bangladesh." Primates. [J].1992. 33(4): 451-464.
[223] Tenaza, R.R.; Tilson, R.L. Human predation and kloss's gibbon (Hylobates klossii) sleeping trees in Siberut Island, Indonesia. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY. [J].1985.8:299-308.
[224] Tilson, R.L. On the behavior of hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) during different seasons in Assam, India. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. [J].1979.76:1-16.
[225] Watanabe, K. Variations in group composition and population density of the two sympatric Mentawaion leaf-mongkeys. Primates. [J]. 1981. 22:145-160.
[226] Cheney, D.L.; Wrangham, R.W. Predation. In PRIMATE SOCIETIES. [M]. B.B. Smuts;D.L. Cheney; R.M. Seyfarth; R.W. Wrangham; T.T. Struhsaker, eds. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987. pp. 227-249
[227] Gittins, S.P. Feeding and ranging in the agile gibbon. FOLIA PRIMATOLOGICA. [J].1982.38:39-71.
[228] Payne, J.B. Competitors. In Chivers D.J. ed. Malayan Forest Primates: Ten years study in a tropical forest. [M] .New York, Plenum Press. 1980. pp. 261-277.
[229] Tilson, R.L. Tenaza, R.R. Interspecific spacing between gibbons (Hylobates klossii) and langurs (Presbytis potenziani) on Siberut Island, Indonesia. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY. [J]. 1982.2:355-361.
[230] Whitington, C. Interactions between lar gibbons and pig-tailed macaques at fruit sources. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY. [J]. 1992.26:61- 64.
[231] Nettelbeck A.R. Sightings of binturongs Arctictis binturong in Khao Yai National Park,Thailand. Small Carnivore Conserv. [J]. 1997.16:22-24.
[232] MacKinnon J. and K. MacKinnon. The formation of a new gibbon group. Primates. [J].1977.18:701-708.
[234] van Schaik C.P, van Hooff J. On the ultimate causes of primate social systems. Behaviour.[J]. 1983.85:91-117.
[235] Mitani, J. C. Experimental field studies of Asian ape social systems. International Journal of Primatology. [J]. 1990.11: 103-126.
[236] Mootnick, A. R., Baker, E., and Sheeran, L. Incest in captive Hylobates Gibbons).Presented to the Animal Behavior Society annual meeting. 1994.
[237] Uhde, N. & V. Sommer Anti-predatory behaviour in gibbons (Hylobates lar, Khao Yai /Thailand), in: Lynne Miller (ed.), Eat or be eaten? Predation Sensitive Foraging. [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. (2002). pp. 268-291
[238] RAJPUROHIT, L.S. & SOMMER, V. Sex differences in mortality among langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Folia Primatol. [J]. 1991. 56: 17-27.
[239] Caro, T. M. Pursuit-deterrence revisited. Trends in Ecology and Evolution [J]. 1995. 10:500-503.
[240] Harvey, P. H., and P. J. Greenwood. Anti-predator defence strategies: some evolutionary problems, in J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies, editors. Behavioural Ecology: an evolutionary approach.[M]. Sunderland, Mass., U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. 1978. pp129-151
[241] Zahavi, A. Mate selection: A selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology [J].1975.53:205-213.
[242] Dunbar, R.I.M., Dunbar, E.P., Ecological relations and niche separation between sympatric terrestrial primates in Ethiopia. Folia Primatol. [J]. 1974.21: 36-61.
[243] Haimoff, E. H. Occurrence of anti-resonance in the song of the siamang (Hylobates syndactylus). American Journal of Primatology [J]. 1983b. 5: 249-256.
[244]Haimoff, E. H. Acoustic and organizational features of gibbon songs. In Preuschoft, H.;Chivers, D. J.; Brockelman, W. Y. & Creel, N. (Eds.). The lesser apes. Evolutionary and behavioural biology [M]. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 1984a. (pp. 333-353).
[245]Haimoff, E. H. The organization of song in the agile gibbon (Hylobates agilis). Folia Primatologica [J]. 1984b. 42:42-61
[246] Geissmann, T., and Orgeldinger, M. The relationship between duet songs and pair bonds in siamangs, Hylobates syndactylus. Animal Behaviour [J]. 2000. 60: 805-809.
[247] Geissmann, T. & Orgeldinger, M. Pair bond and duet songs in siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus). In Taborsky, M. & Taborsky, B. (Eds.), Advances in Ethology, Vol. 32: Contributions to the XXV International Ethological Conference[C]. Vienna, Austria, 20-27 August, 1997. pp123.
[248] Lan, D. Y. Feeding and vocal behaivours of black gibbons (Hylobates concolor) in Yunnan:A preliminary study. Folia Primatol.[J]. 1993. 60: 94-105.
[249] Haimoff, E.H. (1983) Gibbon songs: an acoustical, organizational and behavioural analysis.Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge.
[250] Marler, P. Tenaza, R. Signaling behavior of apes with special reference to vocalization. In:How animals communicate, Sebeok, T. A. (eds.). [M].Indiana University Press, Bloomington and London. 1977. pp. 965-1033.
[251] Goustard, M. Patterns and function of loud calls in the Concolor gibbon In: The lesser apes.Evolutionary and behavioural biology, Preuschoft, H.; Chivers, D. J.; Brockelman, W. Y. & Creel,N. (eds.). [M].Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1984. pp. 404-415.
[252] Farabaugh, S. M. The ecological and social significance of duetting. In Kroodsma, D. E.;Miller, E. H. & Ouellet, H. (Eds.), Acoustic communication in birds.[M].New York and London:Academic Press. 1982. pp. 85-124.
[253] Geissmann, T. & Orgeldinger, M. Duet or divorce! - Duett or erScheidung! Folia Primatologica. [J]. 1998: 69: 283.
[254] Cowlishaw G Song function in gibbons. Behaviour. [J]. 1992.121: 131-153.
© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号 地址：北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编：100083 电话：办公室：(+86 10)66554848；文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新：66554700 |