农村女性劳动力转移就业问题研究
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摘要
随着农业生产率的提高以及女性自主意识的增强,越来越多的农村女性劳动力从农业部门转移出来,从事非农就业,其中较为年轻、具备一定技能、家庭负担轻者更是流向城市.农村女性劳动力转移就业,不仅对其经济地位、社会地位的提升进而促进自身全面发展具有重要影响,而且对农户家庭收入的提高和农村各项事业的发展也具有重要作用。因此,深入分析农村女性劳动力转移就业问题,具有重要的现实指导意义。
首先,本研究进行了理论分析及现状描述。
与本研究相关的经典理论主要包括劳动力转移就业理论以及女性就业理论。其中托达罗人口流动模型中关于发展农村内部非农产业部门雇用吸收力的政策主张为本研究提供了值得借鉴之处;女性就业动机理论以及职业和收入方面的性别差异理论为本研究的实证部分提供了有力的理论支撑;而女性主义在对女性参与经济活动进行分析时所提出的“社会性别”这一概念则为本研究提供了一个新的分析视角.
此外,对我国目前劳动力市场结构以及农村女性劳动力转移就业现状的研究表明,目前我国劳动力市场呈现出“三层二元结构”,对农村劳动力而言,其转移就业主要面临两大部门:农村非农部门与城市部门,其中城市正规部门进入门槛较高,农村劳动力很难进入。研究还表明,与农村男性劳动力相比,农村女性劳动力转移率较低,且从事非农就业的女性更容易集中在非正规部门,就业形态较差.
随后,基于理论与现状分析,围绕“农村女性劳动力转移就业”这一选题,本研究试图回答以下几个问题:1、农村女性劳动力转移就业的途径有哪些?各种途径选择的影响因素分别有哪些?对于农村女性劳动力而言,哪种选择为最优?如何提高其转移率?2、决定农村女性劳动力就业形态选择的主要因素有哪些?如何才能改善农村女性劳动力的就业形态?3、作为农村劳动力转移就业的主要途径之一,农村内部非农产业部门特别是乡镇企业应该如何发展才能提高其雇用吸收力,从而促进农村劳动力,尤其是农村女性劳动力的转移就业。在逐一回答上述问题之后,本研究为改善农村女性劳动力转移就业现状提出相应的政策建议。
针对农村女性劳动力转移率低的现状,为解决问题1,本研究基于江苏省苏南、苏中、苏北三地农村的问卷调查,对影响其转移倾向及途径的影响因素进行了实证分析.结果表明,农村已婚女性劳动力转移受到以下因素的影响.第一,年龄、文化程度和技能方面所体现出来的个体差异,使得不同个体特征的已婚女性,其转移就业行为也有所差异.年龄的增长降低了已婚女性转移就业,尤其是外出就业的机会;文化程度越高的已婚女性其转移就业的可能性更大,而且文化程度越高者,通常占据了本地较好的非农就业工作岗位,外出就业的机会成本更大,因而更倾向于留在本地就业;拥有技能的已婚女性通常选择外出就业.第二,女性在建立家庭后,家务劳动的需求会减弱女性对劳动市场的供给,她们倾向于选择能实现“双赢”的就业途径:既照顾家庭又从事非农就业以增加家庭收入,倘若不能实现“双赢”,就留在家中,承担务农、照顾老人、教育子女等家庭分工。这表明,传统的“男主外,女主内”的家庭分工模式在就业市场上同样存在。此外,对农村已婚女性劳动力而言,配偶的就业形态在一定程度上影响其转移行为,配偶从事非农就业的女性比配偶纯粹务农的女性有更多的机会转移从事非农就业;而配偶的收入对其是否转移的影响并不显著.第三,相比较于经济发达的苏南,苏中、苏北农村非农产业部门的雇用吸收力相对不足,当地女性转移的主要途径是外出,但由于外出成本过高,无力承担外出成本的女性只得留守家庭,从事农业生产或处理家务。
针对农村女性劳动力就业形态较差的现状,为解决问题2,本研究围绕“性别差异”这一核心概念,选取南京市外来农村劳动力作为研究对象,对影响城市外来农村劳动力就业形态的主要因素进行了实证分析。结果表明,个人特征变量、家庭特征变量对农村男性和女性劳动力就业形态选择的影响不同。在其他变量保持平均值的情况下,男性劳动力从事非正规就业的可能性比女性低71.34%;而农村劳动力个人的年龄、技能、就业途径、家庭抚养率等变量对其在城市从事非正规就业的影响呈现显著的性别差异.结果还显示,与男性相比,农村女性在进行就业选择时,更容易受到家庭的影响,为顾及家务及子女教育,她们倾向于选择收入不稳定但工时灵活的非正规工作.其次,农村女性在城市的收入水平普遍低于农村男性,这与各自从事的职业有关.
最后,考虑到农村内部非农产业部门的发展对于促进农村女性劳动力转移就业具有重要意义,本研究以乡镇企业为例,借助乡镇企业各经济类型以及各行业的就业弹性系数及相对劳动生产率等指标,发现近年来乡镇企业的雇用吸收力总体上呈缓慢增长趋势.就其经济类型来看,集体企业的雇用吸收力在不断下降,而私营企业及个体企业的雇用吸收力略有上升。就其行业来看,农业企业的雇用吸收力降到较低水平,工业企业雇用吸收力停滞不前,而其他行业企业的雇用吸收力有所增强。
基于此,本研究提出以下几点政策建议:
1、提高农村女性的个人素质,改革传统的家庭分工
农村女性个人素质的提高包括两方面:一是文化素质,二是从业技能。应大力加强农村女性的基础教育,提高其文化水平,并有针对性地进行技能培训,一方面这将加快农村劳动力,尤其是相对年轻的劳动力离开本地到外地就业的步伐,同时也将促进本地农村内部非农部门的发展;另一方面提高农村女性的个人素质也将扩大其职业选择范围,提升其就业层次,改善其非农就业形态。此外,研究表明,传统的社会性别规范通过家庭作用于农村女性劳动力,阻碍其转移就业。
因此,有必要提高农村女性的个人素质教育,并逐渐改革传统的家庭分工,适当减轻其家庭负担,促进农村女性劳动力转移就业的顺利进行。
2、发展农村个体企业及私营企业,完善农村女性劳动力本地转移就业途径
在传统的家庭分工模式下,女性的主要责任是家务劳动、抚养子女及照顾老人等,这一分工模式在农村地区,尤其是经济欠发达农村地区的家庭中更为普遍。这就导致留守在家的通常是女性,她们中只有少数学历偏高且较为年轻者占据着农村内部较好岗位,绝大多数都相对年长、无技能或无力承担外出成本。此外,通过对乡镇企业各经济类型及各行业雇用吸收力的分析,发现个体企业及私营企业,尤其是其中服务行业的雇用吸收力呈现上升趋势。
因此,农村地区,特别是欠发达农村地区应增强当地非农产业部门的雇用吸收力,加快私营企业及个体企业的发展,特别是服务行业的发展,尤其要大力发展适合相对年长者及家务负担较重者的较为灵活自由的行业。
3、促进全家迁移,完善农村女性劳动力外出转移就业途径
农村女性劳动力特别是农村已婚女性劳动力转移就业受配偶及家庭抚养率的影响已经得到证实。对于农村已婚女性劳动力而言,配偶从事非农就业有助于促进其转移就业,特别是外出就业,但如果家庭中有学前儿童,或者家务劳动负担较重,女性通常就会被动放弃外出就业的机会,在这种情况下,如果当地非农产业部门的雇用吸收力不足,她们唯一的选择就是承担家务劳动。而全家迁移则避免了女性在转移就业与家务劳动之间的两难选择,对于全家迁移的农村女性劳动力而言,其非农就业的成本将有所降低,就业也会相对稳定。
因此,应力图消除农村人口迁移至城市所面临的诸多制度障碍,确保其就业、受教育、医疗、住房以及相关方面的平等待遇,从而促进全家迁移,提高农村劳动力,特别是农村女性劳动力的转移就业。
4、实施“性别计划”,实现性别平等
研究表明,农村女性劳动力无论在转移就业机会、职业选择还是收入方面均未赋予与男性平等的机会。这是因为传统社会性别意识的存在使得社会对女性的预期往往是女性生物性别规定角色的延伸,社会通常期望女性承担一切与照顾和培养相关的工作,这就导致大多数转移就业的农村女性劳动力集中在某些特定的职业,比如餐饮服务、手工制作、保姆等。性别计划则有助于改善女性的从属地位,最终达到性别平等。
性别计划需要政治干预来实现,政府所要做的就是使教育、就业、土地、社会保障等发展政策纳入性别意识,在政府预算和资源分配方案中纳入性别分析的内容,实现性别的平等、公平与赋权.
总体而言,本研究有别于以往基于“性别均质”视角,遵循劳动力“中性”假设,以农村劳动力作为整体进行的研究,而是充分考虑到“性别差异”,鉴于女性劳动力在转移就业过程中的被动性与所处的弱势地位,选取“女性”为研究对象,进行“农村女性劳动力转移就业问题研究”,具有一定的现实意义.同时,在研究过程申并非就女性本身来研究女性问题,而是将男性作为比较对象,进行了性别差异研究,这将使研究结论更具说服力.此外,“社会性别”概念的纳入也使得本研究实证部分的分析更加深入,从而提出更为有效的政策建议.
With the improvement of agricultural productivity and consciousness of female, more and more rural female labor force shift from the agricultural sector to non-agricultural sectors, some of them who are younger and skilled flow to the city. The transfer and employment of rural female labor force is playing an important role not only to their economic status and social status, but also to the improvement of household income and the development of all undertakings in rural areas. Therefore, in-depth analysis of the rural female labor force is of important realistic significance.
This study firstly relates to theoretical analysis and description of the status quo.
"Todaro Rural-Urban Migration Model" makes a useful reference suggestion to develop rural non-agricultural sector's employment absorbency; Female employment theory of motivation and occupational-income theory of gender differences provides a strong theoretical support for the empirical part of this study; The concept of "Gender" brought forward by feminism provides a new perspective for this study. And it is found that China's current labor market is a "dual three-tier structure". As for the rural labor force, they face two main non-agricultral sectors: rural non-agricultral sectors and the urban sectors. Urban informal sectors are difficult for the rural labor force to access. The study also shows that rural male labor force usually has higher transfer rate and work in formal sectors compared with rural female labor force.
Then, Based on theoretical analysis and description of the status quo, centering on the topic of "transfer and employment of rural female labor force", this study attempts to answer the following questions: l.What are the ways of the transfer of rural female labor force? Which factors impact their choice of various ways? Which choice is optimal? How to increase their transfer rate? 2. What are main factors to decide the rural female labor force's employment forms? How to improve their employmentforms? 3. How should we do to develop the township enterprises' employment absorbency, especially to promote the absorbency of rural female labor force? After answering each of the above issues, this study suggests corresponding policy recommendations to improve the transfer and employment of rural female labor force.
To address the low transfer rate of rural female labor force, this study makes an empirical analysis of the factors affecting the transfer ways of them. Based on the survey in the southern Jiangsu, the middle Jiangsu, and the northern Jiangsu, the results shows that the transfer of rural married female labor force is affected by the following factors:
First, individual difference embodied by age, education and skill makes different employment behavior: growing age reduces the growth of transfer and employment of married female, especially on outgoing employment opportunities; well-educated female usually occupy better jobs in local non-agricultural sectors.
Second, household labor would weaken the labor market supply of married female. They tend to choose a "two-to-win" way of employment: not only to take care of the family but also to engage in non-agricultural employment. If "two-to-win" way could not be achieved, staying at home, bearing farming, caring for the elderly, educating their children and other family division of labor would be their first choice. This result shows that the traditional family division is also exist in the labour market. In addition, spouse employment form affects the transfer of married female labor force in the rural areas to a certain extent; a woman whose spouse is in non-agricultural sectors has more opportunities than those whose spouse in agricultural sector.
Third, compared to the advanced economy like southern Jiangsu and middle Jiangsu, the non-agricultural sectors in rural areas in northern Jiangsu have less employment absorbency. The main way for local female labor force to transfer and employment is outgoing, but high costs for outgoing just keep them staying at home, and engaging in agricultural production or handling household chores.
To address the rural female labor force employment form which is poorer, circled the core concept "gender difference", this study selects the foreign rural labor force in Nanjing as an object of study on the impact of the main factors on employment form of them. The result shows that personal characteristic variables and family characteristic variables affect employment form choices of the rural male and female differently. As the other variables remain average, the possibility of male labor force engaging in informal employment is 71.34% lower than that of female; Individual rural labor force's age, skills, employment channels and family variables such as the dependency ratio affects their informal employment form choice in the city, and the result shows significant gender differences. The results also show that, compared with the male labor force, female in rural are more vulnerable to the impact of family when choosing their work, so they tend to choose an unstable income but more flexible working hours work which is usually not a formal work, and this choice would enable them to take into account the education of their children and housework. Secondly, the rural female in the city obtain lower wage than rural male.
Finally, the development of township enterprises is of great significance for rural female labor force. It shows that the employment absorbency of collective enterprises is constantly declining, but that of the private sectors and individual enterprises is rising. In addition, agricultural sector tends to employ at a lower level of absorbency, while absorbency of industrial enterprises employing is stagnated, and the employment absorbency of other industries and enterprises is growing.
Based on above conclusions, this study gives the following policy suggestions:
1. Enhance rural female's personal qualities; reform the traditional family division of labor.
Two measures should be adopted to enhance rural female's personal qualities, including improving their cultural quality and working skills. To achieve these goals, government should vigorously strengthen their basic education and targeted skills training in rural areas. On the one hand, these measures will not only increase the rural labor force, especially increase the young labor force to outgoing employment, but also speed up the local rural non-agricultural sector's development; On the other hand, the advancement of rural female's personal qualities will also expand the scope of their career options, upgrade their employment level and improve their employment form.
In addition, the study shows that the traditional gender norms of the society hinder the transfer of the rural female. Therefore, it is necessary to gradually reform the traditional family division of labor, properly reduce female's burden in rural areas, and promote the efficiency of transferring rural female labor force.
2. Strengthen the employment absorbency of township enterprises for the female labor force
Traditionally female's main responsibility is housework, child-rearing and caring for the elderly, it is more prevalent in rural areas, especially in the underdevelopment rural areas. Only a few young and educated female have the qualification to occupy better jobs in countryside, the vast majority are relatively older, no skills and unable to shoulder the costs for outgoing. Based on this, the less developed rural areas should strengthen the employment absorbency, and quicken the development of private and individual enterprises such as service industries. Moreover, more flexible sectors for the elderly and those who burden heavier housework should be developed either.
3. Promote family migration and alleviate rural women's worries after their transferring
As for the rural married female labor force, whose husband has non-agricultural job will promote her transfer and employment, particularly outgoing employment. But if the family has pre-school children, or a heavier burden of housework, they usually give up employment opportunities on passive. In such circumstances, if the local non-agricultural sectors' employment absorbency is inadequate, their only choice is to undertake household chores.
However, the family migration prevents the difficult choices between transfer and employment and domestic work. For the female whose family has been migrated, her costs of employment will be reduced and her job will be relatively stable.
Therefore, we should seek to eliminate a lot of obstacles the rural population migration facing to, and ensure that their employment, education, medical care, and other aspects equality, so as to promote the family migration of rural labor force, in particular the transfer and employment of the rural female labor force.
4. Implement "Gender Plan" to achieve gender equality
Research shows that the rural female labor force is not given the equal opportunities with male both in the transfer, career choices and income .This is because traditionally female usually bear all the care and training related work, This lead to the majority of the rural female labor force employment concentrating in certain occupations, such as catering services, hand-made, such as nannies. "Gender Plan" will help to improve the gender of the subordinate status of female, and ultimately achieve gender equality.
The "Gender Plan" needs to be achieved by political interference .What the government should do is to bring education, employment, land, and social security policies into the development of gender awareness, so as to achieve gender equality and empowerment.
Overall, this study is different from the past studies based on the "heterogeneous sex" perspective. This study takes full account into the "gender difference". In view of the disadvantaged status of female labor force of transfer and employment, it is of great practical significance to select "female" as the object of study. At the same time, this study is not only on female themselves to study, but also takes male as a comparison, this will enable more convincing conclusion. In addition, the involving of "gender" concept also makes more in-depth analysis, so as to make more effective policy recommendations.
首先,本研究进行了理论分析及现状描述。
与本研究相关的经典理论主要包括劳动力转移就业理论以及女性就业理论。其中托达罗人口流动模型中关于发展农村内部非农产业部门雇用吸收力的政策主张为本研究提供了值得借鉴之处;女性就业动机理论以及职业和收入方面的性别差异理论为本研究的实证部分提供了有力的理论支撑;而女性主义在对女性参与经济活动进行分析时所提出的“社会性别”这一概念则为本研究提供了一个新的分析视角.
此外,对我国目前劳动力市场结构以及农村女性劳动力转移就业现状的研究表明,目前我国劳动力市场呈现出“三层二元结构”,对农村劳动力而言,其转移就业主要面临两大部门:农村非农部门与城市部门,其中城市正规部门进入门槛较高,农村劳动力很难进入。研究还表明,与农村男性劳动力相比,农村女性劳动力转移率较低,且从事非农就业的女性更容易集中在非正规部门,就业形态较差.
随后,基于理论与现状分析,围绕“农村女性劳动力转移就业”这一选题,本研究试图回答以下几个问题:1、农村女性劳动力转移就业的途径有哪些?各种途径选择的影响因素分别有哪些?对于农村女性劳动力而言,哪种选择为最优?如何提高其转移率?2、决定农村女性劳动力就业形态选择的主要因素有哪些?如何才能改善农村女性劳动力的就业形态?3、作为农村劳动力转移就业的主要途径之一,农村内部非农产业部门特别是乡镇企业应该如何发展才能提高其雇用吸收力,从而促进农村劳动力,尤其是农村女性劳动力的转移就业。在逐一回答上述问题之后,本研究为改善农村女性劳动力转移就业现状提出相应的政策建议。
针对农村女性劳动力转移率低的现状,为解决问题1,本研究基于江苏省苏南、苏中、苏北三地农村的问卷调查,对影响其转移倾向及途径的影响因素进行了实证分析.结果表明,农村已婚女性劳动力转移受到以下因素的影响.第一,年龄、文化程度和技能方面所体现出来的个体差异,使得不同个体特征的已婚女性,其转移就业行为也有所差异.年龄的增长降低了已婚女性转移就业,尤其是外出就业的机会;文化程度越高的已婚女性其转移就业的可能性更大,而且文化程度越高者,通常占据了本地较好的非农就业工作岗位,外出就业的机会成本更大,因而更倾向于留在本地就业;拥有技能的已婚女性通常选择外出就业.第二,女性在建立家庭后,家务劳动的需求会减弱女性对劳动市场的供给,她们倾向于选择能实现“双赢”的就业途径:既照顾家庭又从事非农就业以增加家庭收入,倘若不能实现“双赢”,就留在家中,承担务农、照顾老人、教育子女等家庭分工。这表明,传统的“男主外,女主内”的家庭分工模式在就业市场上同样存在。此外,对农村已婚女性劳动力而言,配偶的就业形态在一定程度上影响其转移行为,配偶从事非农就业的女性比配偶纯粹务农的女性有更多的机会转移从事非农就业;而配偶的收入对其是否转移的影响并不显著.第三,相比较于经济发达的苏南,苏中、苏北农村非农产业部门的雇用吸收力相对不足,当地女性转移的主要途径是外出,但由于外出成本过高,无力承担外出成本的女性只得留守家庭,从事农业生产或处理家务。
针对农村女性劳动力就业形态较差的现状,为解决问题2,本研究围绕“性别差异”这一核心概念,选取南京市外来农村劳动力作为研究对象,对影响城市外来农村劳动力就业形态的主要因素进行了实证分析。结果表明,个人特征变量、家庭特征变量对农村男性和女性劳动力就业形态选择的影响不同。在其他变量保持平均值的情况下,男性劳动力从事非正规就业的可能性比女性低71.34%;而农村劳动力个人的年龄、技能、就业途径、家庭抚养率等变量对其在城市从事非正规就业的影响呈现显著的性别差异.结果还显示,与男性相比,农村女性在进行就业选择时,更容易受到家庭的影响,为顾及家务及子女教育,她们倾向于选择收入不稳定但工时灵活的非正规工作.其次,农村女性在城市的收入水平普遍低于农村男性,这与各自从事的职业有关.
最后,考虑到农村内部非农产业部门的发展对于促进农村女性劳动力转移就业具有重要意义,本研究以乡镇企业为例,借助乡镇企业各经济类型以及各行业的就业弹性系数及相对劳动生产率等指标,发现近年来乡镇企业的雇用吸收力总体上呈缓慢增长趋势.就其经济类型来看,集体企业的雇用吸收力在不断下降,而私营企业及个体企业的雇用吸收力略有上升。就其行业来看,农业企业的雇用吸收力降到较低水平,工业企业雇用吸收力停滞不前,而其他行业企业的雇用吸收力有所增强。
基于此,本研究提出以下几点政策建议:
1、提高农村女性的个人素质,改革传统的家庭分工
农村女性个人素质的提高包括两方面:一是文化素质,二是从业技能。应大力加强农村女性的基础教育,提高其文化水平,并有针对性地进行技能培训,一方面这将加快农村劳动力,尤其是相对年轻的劳动力离开本地到外地就业的步伐,同时也将促进本地农村内部非农部门的发展;另一方面提高农村女性的个人素质也将扩大其职业选择范围,提升其就业层次,改善其非农就业形态。此外,研究表明,传统的社会性别规范通过家庭作用于农村女性劳动力,阻碍其转移就业。
因此,有必要提高农村女性的个人素质教育,并逐渐改革传统的家庭分工,适当减轻其家庭负担,促进农村女性劳动力转移就业的顺利进行。
2、发展农村个体企业及私营企业,完善农村女性劳动力本地转移就业途径
在传统的家庭分工模式下,女性的主要责任是家务劳动、抚养子女及照顾老人等,这一分工模式在农村地区,尤其是经济欠发达农村地区的家庭中更为普遍。这就导致留守在家的通常是女性,她们中只有少数学历偏高且较为年轻者占据着农村内部较好岗位,绝大多数都相对年长、无技能或无力承担外出成本。此外,通过对乡镇企业各经济类型及各行业雇用吸收力的分析,发现个体企业及私营企业,尤其是其中服务行业的雇用吸收力呈现上升趋势。
因此,农村地区,特别是欠发达农村地区应增强当地非农产业部门的雇用吸收力,加快私营企业及个体企业的发展,特别是服务行业的发展,尤其要大力发展适合相对年长者及家务负担较重者的较为灵活自由的行业。
3、促进全家迁移,完善农村女性劳动力外出转移就业途径
农村女性劳动力特别是农村已婚女性劳动力转移就业受配偶及家庭抚养率的影响已经得到证实。对于农村已婚女性劳动力而言,配偶从事非农就业有助于促进其转移就业,特别是外出就业,但如果家庭中有学前儿童,或者家务劳动负担较重,女性通常就会被动放弃外出就业的机会,在这种情况下,如果当地非农产业部门的雇用吸收力不足,她们唯一的选择就是承担家务劳动。而全家迁移则避免了女性在转移就业与家务劳动之间的两难选择,对于全家迁移的农村女性劳动力而言,其非农就业的成本将有所降低,就业也会相对稳定。
因此,应力图消除农村人口迁移至城市所面临的诸多制度障碍,确保其就业、受教育、医疗、住房以及相关方面的平等待遇,从而促进全家迁移,提高农村劳动力,特别是农村女性劳动力的转移就业。
4、实施“性别计划”,实现性别平等
研究表明,农村女性劳动力无论在转移就业机会、职业选择还是收入方面均未赋予与男性平等的机会。这是因为传统社会性别意识的存在使得社会对女性的预期往往是女性生物性别规定角色的延伸,社会通常期望女性承担一切与照顾和培养相关的工作,这就导致大多数转移就业的农村女性劳动力集中在某些特定的职业,比如餐饮服务、手工制作、保姆等。性别计划则有助于改善女性的从属地位,最终达到性别平等。
性别计划需要政治干预来实现,政府所要做的就是使教育、就业、土地、社会保障等发展政策纳入性别意识,在政府预算和资源分配方案中纳入性别分析的内容,实现性别的平等、公平与赋权.
总体而言,本研究有别于以往基于“性别均质”视角,遵循劳动力“中性”假设,以农村劳动力作为整体进行的研究,而是充分考虑到“性别差异”,鉴于女性劳动力在转移就业过程中的被动性与所处的弱势地位,选取“女性”为研究对象,进行“农村女性劳动力转移就业问题研究”,具有一定的现实意义.同时,在研究过程申并非就女性本身来研究女性问题,而是将男性作为比较对象,进行了性别差异研究,这将使研究结论更具说服力.此外,“社会性别”概念的纳入也使得本研究实证部分的分析更加深入,从而提出更为有效的政策建议.
With the improvement of agricultural productivity and consciousness of female, more and more rural female labor force shift from the agricultural sector to non-agricultural sectors, some of them who are younger and skilled flow to the city. The transfer and employment of rural female labor force is playing an important role not only to their economic status and social status, but also to the improvement of household income and the development of all undertakings in rural areas. Therefore, in-depth analysis of the rural female labor force is of important realistic significance.
This study firstly relates to theoretical analysis and description of the status quo.
"Todaro Rural-Urban Migration Model" makes a useful reference suggestion to develop rural non-agricultural sector's employment absorbency; Female employment theory of motivation and occupational-income theory of gender differences provides a strong theoretical support for the empirical part of this study; The concept of "Gender" brought forward by feminism provides a new perspective for this study. And it is found that China's current labor market is a "dual three-tier structure". As for the rural labor force, they face two main non-agricultral sectors: rural non-agricultral sectors and the urban sectors. Urban informal sectors are difficult for the rural labor force to access. The study also shows that rural male labor force usually has higher transfer rate and work in formal sectors compared with rural female labor force.
Then, Based on theoretical analysis and description of the status quo, centering on the topic of "transfer and employment of rural female labor force", this study attempts to answer the following questions: l.What are the ways of the transfer of rural female labor force? Which factors impact their choice of various ways? Which choice is optimal? How to increase their transfer rate? 2. What are main factors to decide the rural female labor force's employment forms? How to improve their employmentforms? 3. How should we do to develop the township enterprises' employment absorbency, especially to promote the absorbency of rural female labor force? After answering each of the above issues, this study suggests corresponding policy recommendations to improve the transfer and employment of rural female labor force.
To address the low transfer rate of rural female labor force, this study makes an empirical analysis of the factors affecting the transfer ways of them. Based on the survey in the southern Jiangsu, the middle Jiangsu, and the northern Jiangsu, the results shows that the transfer of rural married female labor force is affected by the following factors:
First, individual difference embodied by age, education and skill makes different employment behavior: growing age reduces the growth of transfer and employment of married female, especially on outgoing employment opportunities; well-educated female usually occupy better jobs in local non-agricultural sectors.
Second, household labor would weaken the labor market supply of married female. They tend to choose a "two-to-win" way of employment: not only to take care of the family but also to engage in non-agricultural employment. If "two-to-win" way could not be achieved, staying at home, bearing farming, caring for the elderly, educating their children and other family division of labor would be their first choice. This result shows that the traditional family division is also exist in the labour market. In addition, spouse employment form affects the transfer of married female labor force in the rural areas to a certain extent; a woman whose spouse is in non-agricultural sectors has more opportunities than those whose spouse in agricultural sector.
Third, compared to the advanced economy like southern Jiangsu and middle Jiangsu, the non-agricultural sectors in rural areas in northern Jiangsu have less employment absorbency. The main way for local female labor force to transfer and employment is outgoing, but high costs for outgoing just keep them staying at home, and engaging in agricultural production or handling household chores.
To address the rural female labor force employment form which is poorer, circled the core concept "gender difference", this study selects the foreign rural labor force in Nanjing as an object of study on the impact of the main factors on employment form of them. The result shows that personal characteristic variables and family characteristic variables affect employment form choices of the rural male and female differently. As the other variables remain average, the possibility of male labor force engaging in informal employment is 71.34% lower than that of female; Individual rural labor force's age, skills, employment channels and family variables such as the dependency ratio affects their informal employment form choice in the city, and the result shows significant gender differences. The results also show that, compared with the male labor force, female in rural are more vulnerable to the impact of family when choosing their work, so they tend to choose an unstable income but more flexible working hours work which is usually not a formal work, and this choice would enable them to take into account the education of their children and housework. Secondly, the rural female in the city obtain lower wage than rural male.
Finally, the development of township enterprises is of great significance for rural female labor force. It shows that the employment absorbency of collective enterprises is constantly declining, but that of the private sectors and individual enterprises is rising. In addition, agricultural sector tends to employ at a lower level of absorbency, while absorbency of industrial enterprises employing is stagnated, and the employment absorbency of other industries and enterprises is growing.
Based on above conclusions, this study gives the following policy suggestions:
1. Enhance rural female's personal qualities; reform the traditional family division of labor.
Two measures should be adopted to enhance rural female's personal qualities, including improving their cultural quality and working skills. To achieve these goals, government should vigorously strengthen their basic education and targeted skills training in rural areas. On the one hand, these measures will not only increase the rural labor force, especially increase the young labor force to outgoing employment, but also speed up the local rural non-agricultural sector's development; On the other hand, the advancement of rural female's personal qualities will also expand the scope of their career options, upgrade their employment level and improve their employment form.
In addition, the study shows that the traditional gender norms of the society hinder the transfer of the rural female. Therefore, it is necessary to gradually reform the traditional family division of labor, properly reduce female's burden in rural areas, and promote the efficiency of transferring rural female labor force.
2. Strengthen the employment absorbency of township enterprises for the female labor force
Traditionally female's main responsibility is housework, child-rearing and caring for the elderly, it is more prevalent in rural areas, especially in the underdevelopment rural areas. Only a few young and educated female have the qualification to occupy better jobs in countryside, the vast majority are relatively older, no skills and unable to shoulder the costs for outgoing. Based on this, the less developed rural areas should strengthen the employment absorbency, and quicken the development of private and individual enterprises such as service industries. Moreover, more flexible sectors for the elderly and those who burden heavier housework should be developed either.
3. Promote family migration and alleviate rural women's worries after their transferring
As for the rural married female labor force, whose husband has non-agricultural job will promote her transfer and employment, particularly outgoing employment. But if the family has pre-school children, or a heavier burden of housework, they usually give up employment opportunities on passive. In such circumstances, if the local non-agricultural sectors' employment absorbency is inadequate, their only choice is to undertake household chores.
However, the family migration prevents the difficult choices between transfer and employment and domestic work. For the female whose family has been migrated, her costs of employment will be reduced and her job will be relatively stable.
Therefore, we should seek to eliminate a lot of obstacles the rural population migration facing to, and ensure that their employment, education, medical care, and other aspects equality, so as to promote the family migration of rural labor force, in particular the transfer and employment of the rural female labor force.
4. Implement "Gender Plan" to achieve gender equality
Research shows that the rural female labor force is not given the equal opportunities with male both in the transfer, career choices and income .This is because traditionally female usually bear all the care and training related work, This lead to the majority of the rural female labor force employment concentrating in certain occupations, such as catering services, hand-made, such as nannies. "Gender Plan" will help to improve the gender of the subordinate status of female, and ultimately achieve gender equality.
The "Gender Plan" needs to be achieved by political interference .What the government should do is to bring education, employment, land, and social security policies into the development of gender awareness, so as to achieve gender equality and empowerment.
Overall, this study is different from the past studies based on the "heterogeneous sex" perspective. This study takes full account into the "gender difference". In view of the disadvantaged status of female labor force of transfer and employment, it is of great practical significance to select "female" as the object of study. At the same time, this study is not only on female themselves to study, but also takes male as a comparison, this will enable more convincing conclusion. In addition, the involving of "gender" concept also makes more in-depth analysis, so as to make more effective policy recommendations.
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· www.wemenldl.com.cn
· www.nmpx.gov.cn
· www.gender.org
· http://www.worldbank.org/
· http://www.unfpa.org/gender/index.htm
· http://www.ausaid.gov.au/keyaid/gender.cfm
· http://www.adb.org/Gender/default.asp
· http://www.unicefusa.org/
· http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/
· http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/index.htm
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[2]Caroline O.N.Moser,1993,"Gender Planning Training:Its Methodology and Content" in Gender Planning and Development:Theory,Practice &Training,Routledge.
[3]Eva Mueller,1983,"Measuring Women's Poverty in Developing Countries" in Mary Buvinic,Margaret A.Lycette,and William Paul McGreevey,ed.,Women and Poverty in the Third World,Johns Hopkins University Press.
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· www.wemenldl.com.cn
· www.nmpx.gov.cn
· www.gender.org
· http://www.worldbank.org/
· http://www.unfpa.org/gender/index.htm
· http://www.ausaid.gov.au/keyaid/gender.cfm
· http://www.adb.org/Gender/default.asp
· http://www.unicefusa.org/
· http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/
· http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/index.htm
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