人类—自然耦合系统中生产和分解子系统功能强化研究
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摘要
人类进入农业文明特别是工业文明以来,对自然的开发利用逐渐打破自然生态系统原有的对称状态、使其结构破缺。破缺就是减弱或消除原生态系统不符合人类要求的结构并强化人类需要的结构,最终形成为人类需求服务的功能单元,如农田、牧场、种植园、城市、污水处理厂和垃圾处理厂等。近一百多年来,随着城市化增强,这些在结构上破缺的单元相互耦合,自组织形成更大尺度的以城市为中心的新系统——人类-自然耦合系统(Coupled human and natural systems, CHANS).新形成的CHANS极大地提高了生产力,加速了能量流动和物质循环,加强了从城市到地区和国家、甚至全球多重尺度的调控,使得世界上一半以上的人口终于不再为食物、居住问题担忧并且拥有超出其基本生存所需的物质享受。在CHANS中,两个最基本的生态过程——生产和分解与自然生态系统大致相同,但不同点是：自然生态系统中个体和种群构成的生产者和分解者在CHANS中上升到了人类组织的具有多组分复杂结构的功能单元——“生态器”(如农田和污水处理厂),它们拥有比自然生态系统更高效的单一目标的功能。目前,CHANS的结构还刚刚形成,功能还不完善,甚至存在着很大问题。一方面,生产的不足使世界上约12亿人口还处在饥饿贫困状态。另一方面,分解不足甚至比生产不足更加严重,因为分解生态器的规模远小于生产生态器,造成废弃物积累,使生命支持系统(如水体、土壤、大气等)受到污染。
本文选择CHANS的生产器、分解器为对象,研究如何强化其效率进而强化整个CHANS功能；具体研究以中国作为主要研究区域,同时辅以国际上其他国家的数据作为参照；选择退化问题日益突出但以往人们关注不足的草地为案例研究如何通过人工草地生产器加强其生产功能；以新兴的人工湿地作为分解器的案例,并与污水处理厂作参照对比探讨强化CHANS的分解效率。本研究通过实验测定和文献数据收集相结合编译了数据集。利用物质平衡法、生命周期法、情景分析法研究了如何强化两类生态器功能以满足人类的需求。内容包括：中国人民对草食畜产品需求的快速增长进而造成的对草料的巨大需求；天然草地和人工草地生产现状及强化潜力分析；中国的污水产量、污水处理厂及人工湿地的污水去除效率的优化；通过人工湿地利用废氮(N)生产生物质能源的潜力。本文还评估了人工草地和人工湿地生态系统碳(c)、N流,以及C、N耦合下系统的功能强化,探讨了通过人工构建生态器功能单元从而提高CHANS生产力的途径,并建立与生产力相平衡的分解器。本文主要结论有以下6点：
1)在过去的60年里中国的总人口增长了1.4倍。随着人口和人均消费水平的提高,人均牛羊肉、奶类的消费水平也提高了3倍和6倍。其中城镇人口增长了10倍,城镇人均牛羊肉、奶类的消费增长了3-36倍。按照中国人口、城镇化以及经济发展速度预计,未来草食畜产品的消费需求还将迅速增加。畜产品需求的增长对草料需求量已远超过天然草地产草量,使过去50年已因过度利用而退化的草地的产草量(平均911kg ha-1,低值122kg ha-1)进一步降低。即便考虑到通过恢复天然草地,并利用冬、夏闲田(1560万ha,可产草23400万吨)和秸秆(29.1万吨),到2050年全国草料缺口仍然高达1595.5Tg。
2)人工草地是缓解草料缺口的重要途径。中国各区人工草地产草量平均为17275kgha-。,最高可达45000kg ha-1,是天然草地的5-32倍。但是,中国目前人工草地面积仅占全国草地总面积的2%,如果在2030年达到国家规划目标,即人工草地面积占天然草地面积10%(40M ha),同时饲草转化率达到世界平均水平,则仅再需使用27%的全国草地面积用做天然牧场,在考虑未来对畜产品高需求的情况下全国草料的供。需总量也能够达到平衡。这样一来,其余63%面积的位于生态脆弱地带的草地可基本以保护为主。不仅保护了生物多样性,而且还可以减少沙尘暴的发生,改善区域乃至全球环境。
3)虽然人工草地的生物多样性低于天然草地,并且人工草地施肥还会引起水体污染,但是人工草地还可以提供更多的生态系统服务。我们计算出,中国人工草地每年可提供净生态系统服务3327亿元。而优化利用后全国除人工草地以外的天然草地每年可提供生态系统服务8322.79亿元。综合地,中国全部草地的生态系统服务功能价值将高达每年1.16万亿元,略低于全国森林的生态系统服务功能价值(每年1.40万亿元)。
4)作为CNANS中主要的分解生态器,中国的污水处理厂的数量由80年代的266座发展到2008年的937座,污水日处理能力增长了5倍多,污水处理率由80年代的仅10-3%提高到2008年的57.4%。但是仍低于发达国家水平(90%以上),特别是对N、P的去除远未达到使地表水健康的标准。其中很重要的原因就是污水处理厂的建造和运行费用高：每去除1kg N建造花费37.5-135元,运行管理花费13.8-37.5元,这在中国目前的经济状况下不可行。
5)人工湿地作为新的CHANS的污水处理器,较污水处理厂有明显优势。对于铵态氮(NH4+-N)、总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)、化学需氧量(COD)、生物需氧量(BOD5)中国的人工湿地平均去除率分别为59.8%,44.3%,62.1%,73.4%和81.8%。此外,人工湿地的温室气体(GHG)的净排放量是每处理立方米污水排放18.5g C02当量,仅为污水处理厂的0.1%。去除1kgN人工湿地的建造运行费用13.6-70元,仅是污水处理厂的1/3。1/2,运行费用0.5-5元,仅是污水处理厂的1/7-1/27。然而,人工湿地也有占地面积大的劣势：去除同样质量的污水,人工湿地占地面积是污水处理厂的5-10倍。人工湿地的污水去除率依据流型不同而有差异：对于NH4+-N、TN、TP、COD,垂直流人工湿地处理效果高于表面流、水平流人工湿地；对于BOD5,水平流的处理效果高于垂直流和表面流人工湿地。复合垂直潜流人工湿地,主要是基于垂直潜流和水平潜流的结构,其结合了垂直潜流型里促进了硝化作用的需氧过程以及水平潜流中提高反硝化厌氧过程这两者的优势,是所有类型中效率最高的。
6)人工湿地在处理污水之外还可提供其他生态系统服务。包括C02固定、释放02、水量调节、生物多样性保护、提供洁净水源、美学、科普、教育、娱乐及生态旅游价值等。此外,通过人工湿地还可利用废N生产生物能源,从而再加强其生态系统服务。根据物质平衡法和生命周期法计算,人工湿地生物能源生产系统的能量产出、净能量平衡(NEB)是分别是182.3,105.4GJ ha-1year-1。人工湿地单位面积生物能源能量的产出是目前世界上4个主要的生物能源生产体系系统(玉米、大豆、柳枝稷、LIHD草地)的2-8倍。计算以上各项服务,本文以浙江省为例,得出人工湿地净生态系统服务价值为7840667.3元ha。yr-1,高于本地区森林的生态系统服务价值(59178元ha-1yr-1)
综上,在CHANS中,利用人工草地使中国草地生产功能提高1倍；利用人工湿地处理污水比起传统的污水处理厂的NH4+-N去除率提高1倍,TN和TP提高了50%左右。这意味着生产器和分解器的强化可强化CHANS的生态功能。生产器和分解器强化功能的同时,还可改善生命支持组分的状态：63%的天然草地可得到恢复保护,90%以上的废水得到彻底治理,从而提高整个CHANS的生物多样性、美学、教育、娱乐价值。本研究通过人工湿地和人工草地提高生产器和分解器功能的范式还可以推广至其他生态器,直至使所有生态器的功能都得到强化从而优化整个CHANS的结构和功能,达到经济-生态-社会三赢的可持续发展模式。
With the development from agricultural civilization to industrial civilization, human activity has changed natural ecosystems, resulting in breaking original structural features, forming new fracturing production units or decomposition units, such as cropland, rangeland, plantation, city, wastewater treatment plant (WTP) and so on. In recent one hundred years, with the development of urbanization, these fracturing units coupled together to build a new coupled system:coupled human and natural systems (CHANS). In CHANS, productivity is improved, energy flow and material circulation were accelerated, multi-scale regulation from urban to regional and even global scale was strengthen. More than half of the population in the world finally have no longer concerns for food, housing problems and have the basic need to survive beyond its material comforts. In CHANS, the basic processes of production and decomposition are roughly the same with those in the natural ecosystems. Nevertheless, the producers and decomposers have changed from individual species in natural ecosystems to the complex structure with multiple function units--"organeco" in CHANS. The organeco has higher productivity than its counterparts in the natural ecosystem and has more enhanced efficient features. Currently, the structure of CHANS has just been formed; function process is not perfect, even existing big problems. On one hand, the function process of production is not enough. About12million world's people are still in hunger poverty. On the other hand, the number of decomposition organeco is far less than the number of production organeco, resulting in the accumulation of waste, making life-support systems (such as water, soil, atmosphere, etc.) contamination.
In this paper, we chose production organeco and decomposition organeco as the object. We studied how to strengthen their efficiency and thus strengthen the function of the CHANS. We took China as a major research object, supplemented by data from other countries in the world as a reference. We selected grassland since its degradation had become increasingly prominent, but people in the past had insufficient attention to how to use artificial grassland to enhance its production function. Also we chose constructed wetland (CW) as a case of decomposition organeco, and with the wastewater treatment plant as a comparison reference, to study enhancing decomposition efficiency in CHANS. We compiled data-sets by both experimental data and literature data. We use material balance method, life cycle analysis, scenario analysis together to study how these two types of organeco to meet human needs. The research's content include:people's increasing livestock need for grass demanding, the current and future potential productivity of natural grassland and artificial grassland, volume of wastewater discharge in China, treatment efficient of WTP and CW, using waste nitrogen (N) for biofuel production via CW. This paper also discusses carbon (C), N flow, and C, N coupled function of the artificial grassland and CW to improve productivity in CHANS. The main conclusions are as following:
1) China's population has increased1.4-fold in the past60years. Per capita consumption of beef, mutton, and milk has increased3-fold,6-fold, respectively, with the increasing development of population and consumption capability. Urbanization has led to population has increased10-fold in urban area. Per capita consumption of beef, mutton, and milk in urban has increased3-36fold. If China's population, urbanization and economic development continue to increase according to the current speed, livestock product will be needed more. The increasing livestock demand had led to lead to grassland degradation, desertification. Thus, grass supply (averagely911kg ha-1, lowest122kg ha-1) decreases, cannot satisfy total grass supply. Restoring natural grassland and utilizing available1560ha winter and summer fallow fields (could provide0.234billion tons grass), plus available0.291million tons of straw, there still exist1595.5Tg grass supply gap according to our analysis in2050.
2) Artificial grassland is an important way to ease the grass gap between grass supply and demanding. Aboveground grass production in artificial grassland was averagely17275kg ha-1(highest45000kg ha-1). This number is5-32fold that of the grass production in natural grassland in China. However, the area of artificial grassland occupies only2%of China's total grassland area. If artificial grassland area will cover10%of China's total grassland (40M ha), together with forage conversion rate improving to average world level, and there only need27%of China's total grassland area for natural grassland, the balance between total grass supply and total grass demanding would be reached. Thus, the remaining63%of the grassland area, located in ecologically fragile zones will be basically to be protected, which can reduce the incidence of dust storms and improve regional and global environment.
3) Biodiversity in artificial grassland is lower than that of natural grassland. Fertilizer application causes water pollution problems in artificial grassland. However, artificial grassland can supply other regulation and supporting services, such as carbon sequestration and soil fertility retention. We calculated that artificial grassland can supply net ecosystem service as high as332.7billion yuan. If63%of grassland is put under protection and restoration, those natural grassland would provide ecosystem service832.2billion yuan. Together, China's total grassland would provide1160billion yuan ecosystem service, slightly lower than ecosystem service of forest in China (1406billion yuan).
4) As an important decomposition organeco in CHANS, the number of WTP has increased rapidly from266in1980s to937in2008. Wastewater treatment capability has increased more than5-fold. Wastewater treatment ratio has increased from10.3%in1980s to57.4%in2008, still lower than that in developed countries (90%). Treatment ratio for N and P can not reach the standard for surface water. Reasons are the construction and operation cost very high in China. The cost of removing1kg N was37.5to135yuan RMB, operating and maintenance costs are～0.5yuan to5.0yuan RMB removing per kg N for WTP in China.
5) Recently a new wastewater treatment approach-CWs was introduced to China, as a new decomposition organeco in CHANS. The average removal rates of NH4+-N (ammonium nitrogen), TN (total nitrogen), TP (total phosphorus), COD (chemical oxygen demand), and BOD5(five day biochemical oxygen demand) are59.8%,44.3%,62.1%,73.4%, and81.8%, respectively. In addition, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission was18.5g CO2equivalent when CW treating per cubic wastewater, the number was only0.1%that of WTP. The cost of removing1kg N in a CW (13.6to70yuan RMB) was only one-third to one-half the cost of a WTP, operating and maintenance costs are～0.5yuan to5.0yuan RMB per kg N,1/7-1/27that of WTPs. Nevertheless, CWs also has disadvantages. CWs require5-10times larger land area than WTPs to remove same amount of waste N. CW treatment efficiency differs according to different hydraulic wetland types. As for NH4+-N、TN、TP、COD, vertical flow CWs are more efficient than horizontal flow and surface flow CWs. As for BOD5, horizontal flow CWs are more efficient than vertical flow and surface flow CWs. The newly developed integrated vertical flow CWs, based mainly on subsurface flow CWs, combine the advantages of vertical flow aerobic processes that stimulate nitrification with the subsurface flow anaerobic processes that promote denitrification. Thus, integrated vertical flow CWs are the most effective CW type.
6) CWs can provide additional ecosystem service benefits, such as biomass production, carbon sequestration, oxygen release, reusable water supply, regional climate regulation, habitat conservation, educational and recreational usage. Moreover, biofuel production via CWs can strengthen ecosystem services. We use mass balance approach and life cycle analysis, showing the energy output, net energy balance of biomass energy yield of CWs at present reached182.3,105.4GJ ha-1. Energy output is2-8folds higher than the four current biofuel production systems (corn, soybean, switchgrass, LIHD grassland). In sum, taking Zhejiang Province as case, the total ecosystem services for CW are7840667.3yuan ha-1yr-1, much higher than forest ecosystem services (36130yuan ha-1yr-1) in this region.
To sum up,using artificial grassland has improved one fold productivity, using CW can increaset the NH4+-N treatment ratio one fold higher, TN and TP treatment ratio50%higher, thus, reducing the ecological footprint in CHANS. Enhancing decomposition organeco and production organeco could improve the status of life support components.63%of natural grassland can be recovered under protection. More than90%of the wastewater treatment are thoroughly be treated. Biodiversity, amenity, educational value could be improved in total CHANS. The paradigm of using artificial grassland and CW for the improvement of ecosystem function can be impleted in other organeco. Thus, all the organeco functions in CHANS can be improved in a economic-ecological-social sustainable mode.
本文选择CHANS的生产器、分解器为对象,研究如何强化其效率进而强化整个CHANS功能；具体研究以中国作为主要研究区域,同时辅以国际上其他国家的数据作为参照；选择退化问题日益突出但以往人们关注不足的草地为案例研究如何通过人工草地生产器加强其生产功能；以新兴的人工湿地作为分解器的案例,并与污水处理厂作参照对比探讨强化CHANS的分解效率。本研究通过实验测定和文献数据收集相结合编译了数据集。利用物质平衡法、生命周期法、情景分析法研究了如何强化两类生态器功能以满足人类的需求。内容包括：中国人民对草食畜产品需求的快速增长进而造成的对草料的巨大需求；天然草地和人工草地生产现状及强化潜力分析；中国的污水产量、污水处理厂及人工湿地的污水去除效率的优化；通过人工湿地利用废氮(N)生产生物质能源的潜力。本文还评估了人工草地和人工湿地生态系统碳(c)、N流,以及C、N耦合下系统的功能强化,探讨了通过人工构建生态器功能单元从而提高CHANS生产力的途径,并建立与生产力相平衡的分解器。本文主要结论有以下6点：
1)在过去的60年里中国的总人口增长了1.4倍。随着人口和人均消费水平的提高,人均牛羊肉、奶类的消费水平也提高了3倍和6倍。其中城镇人口增长了10倍,城镇人均牛羊肉、奶类的消费增长了3-36倍。按照中国人口、城镇化以及经济发展速度预计,未来草食畜产品的消费需求还将迅速增加。畜产品需求的增长对草料需求量已远超过天然草地产草量,使过去50年已因过度利用而退化的草地的产草量(平均911kg ha-1,低值122kg ha-1)进一步降低。即便考虑到通过恢复天然草地,并利用冬、夏闲田(1560万ha,可产草23400万吨)和秸秆(29.1万吨),到2050年全国草料缺口仍然高达1595.5Tg。
2)人工草地是缓解草料缺口的重要途径。中国各区人工草地产草量平均为17275kgha-。,最高可达45000kg ha-1,是天然草地的5-32倍。但是,中国目前人工草地面积仅占全国草地总面积的2%,如果在2030年达到国家规划目标,即人工草地面积占天然草地面积10%(40M ha),同时饲草转化率达到世界平均水平,则仅再需使用27%的全国草地面积用做天然牧场,在考虑未来对畜产品高需求的情况下全国草料的供。需总量也能够达到平衡。这样一来,其余63%面积的位于生态脆弱地带的草地可基本以保护为主。不仅保护了生物多样性,而且还可以减少沙尘暴的发生,改善区域乃至全球环境。
3)虽然人工草地的生物多样性低于天然草地,并且人工草地施肥还会引起水体污染,但是人工草地还可以提供更多的生态系统服务。我们计算出,中国人工草地每年可提供净生态系统服务3327亿元。而优化利用后全国除人工草地以外的天然草地每年可提供生态系统服务8322.79亿元。综合地,中国全部草地的生态系统服务功能价值将高达每年1.16万亿元,略低于全国森林的生态系统服务功能价值(每年1.40万亿元)。
4)作为CNANS中主要的分解生态器,中国的污水处理厂的数量由80年代的266座发展到2008年的937座,污水日处理能力增长了5倍多,污水处理率由80年代的仅10-3%提高到2008年的57.4%。但是仍低于发达国家水平(90%以上),特别是对N、P的去除远未达到使地表水健康的标准。其中很重要的原因就是污水处理厂的建造和运行费用高：每去除1kg N建造花费37.5-135元,运行管理花费13.8-37.5元,这在中国目前的经济状况下不可行。
5)人工湿地作为新的CHANS的污水处理器,较污水处理厂有明显优势。对于铵态氮(NH4+-N)、总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)、化学需氧量(COD)、生物需氧量(BOD5)中国的人工湿地平均去除率分别为59.8%,44.3%,62.1%,73.4%和81.8%。此外,人工湿地的温室气体(GHG)的净排放量是每处理立方米污水排放18.5g C02当量,仅为污水处理厂的0.1%。去除1kgN人工湿地的建造运行费用13.6-70元,仅是污水处理厂的1/3。1/2,运行费用0.5-5元,仅是污水处理厂的1/7-1/27。然而,人工湿地也有占地面积大的劣势：去除同样质量的污水,人工湿地占地面积是污水处理厂的5-10倍。人工湿地的污水去除率依据流型不同而有差异：对于NH4+-N、TN、TP、COD,垂直流人工湿地处理效果高于表面流、水平流人工湿地；对于BOD5,水平流的处理效果高于垂直流和表面流人工湿地。复合垂直潜流人工湿地,主要是基于垂直潜流和水平潜流的结构,其结合了垂直潜流型里促进了硝化作用的需氧过程以及水平潜流中提高反硝化厌氧过程这两者的优势,是所有类型中效率最高的。
6)人工湿地在处理污水之外还可提供其他生态系统服务。包括C02固定、释放02、水量调节、生物多样性保护、提供洁净水源、美学、科普、教育、娱乐及生态旅游价值等。此外,通过人工湿地还可利用废N生产生物能源,从而再加强其生态系统服务。根据物质平衡法和生命周期法计算,人工湿地生物能源生产系统的能量产出、净能量平衡(NEB)是分别是182.3,105.4GJ ha-1year-1。人工湿地单位面积生物能源能量的产出是目前世界上4个主要的生物能源生产体系系统(玉米、大豆、柳枝稷、LIHD草地)的2-8倍。计算以上各项服务,本文以浙江省为例,得出人工湿地净生态系统服务价值为7840667.3元ha。yr-1,高于本地区森林的生态系统服务价值(59178元ha-1yr-1)
综上,在CHANS中,利用人工草地使中国草地生产功能提高1倍；利用人工湿地处理污水比起传统的污水处理厂的NH4+-N去除率提高1倍,TN和TP提高了50%左右。这意味着生产器和分解器的强化可强化CHANS的生态功能。生产器和分解器强化功能的同时,还可改善生命支持组分的状态：63%的天然草地可得到恢复保护,90%以上的废水得到彻底治理,从而提高整个CHANS的生物多样性、美学、教育、娱乐价值。本研究通过人工湿地和人工草地提高生产器和分解器功能的范式还可以推广至其他生态器,直至使所有生态器的功能都得到强化从而优化整个CHANS的结构和功能,达到经济-生态-社会三赢的可持续发展模式。
With the development from agricultural civilization to industrial civilization, human activity has changed natural ecosystems, resulting in breaking original structural features, forming new fracturing production units or decomposition units, such as cropland, rangeland, plantation, city, wastewater treatment plant (WTP) and so on. In recent one hundred years, with the development of urbanization, these fracturing units coupled together to build a new coupled system:coupled human and natural systems (CHANS). In CHANS, productivity is improved, energy flow and material circulation were accelerated, multi-scale regulation from urban to regional and even global scale was strengthen. More than half of the population in the world finally have no longer concerns for food, housing problems and have the basic need to survive beyond its material comforts. In CHANS, the basic processes of production and decomposition are roughly the same with those in the natural ecosystems. Nevertheless, the producers and decomposers have changed from individual species in natural ecosystems to the complex structure with multiple function units--"organeco" in CHANS. The organeco has higher productivity than its counterparts in the natural ecosystem and has more enhanced efficient features. Currently, the structure of CHANS has just been formed; function process is not perfect, even existing big problems. On one hand, the function process of production is not enough. About12million world's people are still in hunger poverty. On the other hand, the number of decomposition organeco is far less than the number of production organeco, resulting in the accumulation of waste, making life-support systems (such as water, soil, atmosphere, etc.) contamination.
In this paper, we chose production organeco and decomposition organeco as the object. We studied how to strengthen their efficiency and thus strengthen the function of the CHANS. We took China as a major research object, supplemented by data from other countries in the world as a reference. We selected grassland since its degradation had become increasingly prominent, but people in the past had insufficient attention to how to use artificial grassland to enhance its production function. Also we chose constructed wetland (CW) as a case of decomposition organeco, and with the wastewater treatment plant as a comparison reference, to study enhancing decomposition efficiency in CHANS. We compiled data-sets by both experimental data and literature data. We use material balance method, life cycle analysis, scenario analysis together to study how these two types of organeco to meet human needs. The research's content include:people's increasing livestock need for grass demanding, the current and future potential productivity of natural grassland and artificial grassland, volume of wastewater discharge in China, treatment efficient of WTP and CW, using waste nitrogen (N) for biofuel production via CW. This paper also discusses carbon (C), N flow, and C, N coupled function of the artificial grassland and CW to improve productivity in CHANS. The main conclusions are as following:
1) China's population has increased1.4-fold in the past60years. Per capita consumption of beef, mutton, and milk has increased3-fold,6-fold, respectively, with the increasing development of population and consumption capability. Urbanization has led to population has increased10-fold in urban area. Per capita consumption of beef, mutton, and milk in urban has increased3-36fold. If China's population, urbanization and economic development continue to increase according to the current speed, livestock product will be needed more. The increasing livestock demand had led to lead to grassland degradation, desertification. Thus, grass supply (averagely911kg ha-1, lowest122kg ha-1) decreases, cannot satisfy total grass supply. Restoring natural grassland and utilizing available1560ha winter and summer fallow fields (could provide0.234billion tons grass), plus available0.291million tons of straw, there still exist1595.5Tg grass supply gap according to our analysis in2050.
2) Artificial grassland is an important way to ease the grass gap between grass supply and demanding. Aboveground grass production in artificial grassland was averagely17275kg ha-1(highest45000kg ha-1). This number is5-32fold that of the grass production in natural grassland in China. However, the area of artificial grassland occupies only2%of China's total grassland area. If artificial grassland area will cover10%of China's total grassland (40M ha), together with forage conversion rate improving to average world level, and there only need27%of China's total grassland area for natural grassland, the balance between total grass supply and total grass demanding would be reached. Thus, the remaining63%of the grassland area, located in ecologically fragile zones will be basically to be protected, which can reduce the incidence of dust storms and improve regional and global environment.
3) Biodiversity in artificial grassland is lower than that of natural grassland. Fertilizer application causes water pollution problems in artificial grassland. However, artificial grassland can supply other regulation and supporting services, such as carbon sequestration and soil fertility retention. We calculated that artificial grassland can supply net ecosystem service as high as332.7billion yuan. If63%of grassland is put under protection and restoration, those natural grassland would provide ecosystem service832.2billion yuan. Together, China's total grassland would provide1160billion yuan ecosystem service, slightly lower than ecosystem service of forest in China (1406billion yuan).
4) As an important decomposition organeco in CHANS, the number of WTP has increased rapidly from266in1980s to937in2008. Wastewater treatment capability has increased more than5-fold. Wastewater treatment ratio has increased from10.3%in1980s to57.4%in2008, still lower than that in developed countries (90%). Treatment ratio for N and P can not reach the standard for surface water. Reasons are the construction and operation cost very high in China. The cost of removing1kg N was37.5to135yuan RMB, operating and maintenance costs are～0.5yuan to5.0yuan RMB removing per kg N for WTP in China.
5) Recently a new wastewater treatment approach-CWs was introduced to China, as a new decomposition organeco in CHANS. The average removal rates of NH4+-N (ammonium nitrogen), TN (total nitrogen), TP (total phosphorus), COD (chemical oxygen demand), and BOD5(five day biochemical oxygen demand) are59.8%,44.3%,62.1%,73.4%, and81.8%, respectively. In addition, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission was18.5g CO2equivalent when CW treating per cubic wastewater, the number was only0.1%that of WTP. The cost of removing1kg N in a CW (13.6to70yuan RMB) was only one-third to one-half the cost of a WTP, operating and maintenance costs are～0.5yuan to5.0yuan RMB per kg N,1/7-1/27that of WTPs. Nevertheless, CWs also has disadvantages. CWs require5-10times larger land area than WTPs to remove same amount of waste N. CW treatment efficiency differs according to different hydraulic wetland types. As for NH4+-N、TN、TP、COD, vertical flow CWs are more efficient than horizontal flow and surface flow CWs. As for BOD5, horizontal flow CWs are more efficient than vertical flow and surface flow CWs. The newly developed integrated vertical flow CWs, based mainly on subsurface flow CWs, combine the advantages of vertical flow aerobic processes that stimulate nitrification with the subsurface flow anaerobic processes that promote denitrification. Thus, integrated vertical flow CWs are the most effective CW type.
6) CWs can provide additional ecosystem service benefits, such as biomass production, carbon sequestration, oxygen release, reusable water supply, regional climate regulation, habitat conservation, educational and recreational usage. Moreover, biofuel production via CWs can strengthen ecosystem services. We use mass balance approach and life cycle analysis, showing the energy output, net energy balance of biomass energy yield of CWs at present reached182.3,105.4GJ ha-1. Energy output is2-8folds higher than the four current biofuel production systems (corn, soybean, switchgrass, LIHD grassland). In sum, taking Zhejiang Province as case, the total ecosystem services for CW are7840667.3yuan ha-1yr-1, much higher than forest ecosystem services (36130yuan ha-1yr-1) in this region.
To sum up,using artificial grassland has improved one fold productivity, using CW can increaset the NH4+-N treatment ratio one fold higher, TN and TP treatment ratio50%higher, thus, reducing the ecological footprint in CHANS. Enhancing decomposition organeco and production organeco could improve the status of life support components.63%of natural grassland can be recovered under protection. More than90%of the wastewater treatment are thoroughly be treated. Biodiversity, amenity, educational value could be improved in total CHANS. The paradigm of using artificial grassland and CW for the improvement of ecosystem function can be impleted in other organeco. Thus, all the organeco functions in CHANS can be improved in a economic-ecological-social sustainable mode.
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