铜基粉末冶金摩擦材料研制及其高温疲劳磨损和冲击性能研究
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摘要
本论文研究高速列车用铜基粉末冶金摩擦材料以及其高温疲劳磨损性能和冲击动态力学性能。
(1)在综合国内外关于铜基粉末冶金摩擦材料配方的基础上，研制了三种比较相近的铜基粉末冶金摩擦材料配方。经混合压制烧结，最后制成试验所需样品。测量了三种材料的力学参数和热传导参数。在MM-1000实验机上做了三种材料的摩擦磨损试验。其中测量了摩擦系数随转速的变化，和摩擦系数随压力的变化。通过试验选出了稳定性、摩擦磨损性均较好的第三种材料。
(2)测试了该材料的高温疲劳磨损性能，近似拟合了该材料的磨损随温度的变化规律曲线，并对材料进行了失效分析。试验结果表明：在室温～100℃之间材料的摩擦系数随着温度的升高而增大，在100℃～350℃之间时，随温度升高摩擦系数逐渐降低，在350～500℃之间摩擦系数随温度的升高又增大，直到500℃发生粘附现象。从疲劳磨损看，在室温和300℃时磨损最小，微观分析发现在300℃时，摩擦材料的表面形成了一层固体润滑层，表面化合物发生了变化，得出该材料疲劳磨损的临界温度为350℃。而在500℃时摩擦系数上升，微裂纹沿滑移面之间扩展，并逐步相互贯通，导致摩擦面呈层状剥落，使磨损率增加；做300℃磨损后X衍射分析表明，疲劳摩擦后材料表层的氧化物发生了改变，由原来的以FeO为主变为以FeN为主，且形成BN、PbO等固体润滑层，从而使磨损降低。在疲劳摩擦过程中，硬质颗粒SiO_2脱落，作为磨粒参与摩擦，是造成犁沟和微裂纹的起源之一。
(3)研究了该材料的冲击动态性能。在做冲击动态实验之前为了与准静态试验比较并得到数值模拟的参数，又做了该材料的准静态试验，应变率范围为10~(-4)／s～10~(-3)／s，测出了材料的弹性模量和弹、塑性泊松比，从静态曲线看该材料有应变硬化效应，静态压缩破坏为剪切破坏，压缩后圆柱表面可以看到位错蚀坑。在Hopkinson压杆上做了材料的冲击实验，得出该材料在10~2／S～10~3／s应变率范围的动态应力应变曲线，从试验曲线看，该材料在应变率1000／s以下时，表现为应变率强化效应，但当应变率高于1000／s时，材料有损伤软化趋势，也就是说，该材料的冲击临界应变率为1000／s左右；通过微观分析可知，当应变率为1600／s时，材料发生了滑移剪切破坏，从试件表面可以看到大量的平行滑移裂纹使材料断裂；塑性变形以滑移为主伴有少量孪晶，同时有蜘蛛状裂纹交汇和柔性连接现象，也伴随有硬质颗粒的破碎，在裂纹中发现有大量的碳纤维组织，这些纤维对裂纹的扩展起抑制作用。最后在粘弹性模型的基础上用加入粘塑性项的组合模型拟合了这种材料在1000／s应变率下的本构方程，并与试验结果符合较好。
(4)做了材料的被动围压实验，以20#钢为套筒，油膜为试件和套筒之间的传递介
质。试验后微观分析发现组织中有大量的孪晶发生，也就是说，在被动围压情况下，
材料由于环向和径向受到约束使滑移受限，形变以孪晶为主，微裂纹的扩展还是在初
始裂纹和孔洞处，但与同一应变率不加围压的试件相比，在应变率为1650/5时，试件
中既有微小裂纹，同时也有少量硬质颗粒的破碎，但没发现蜘蛛状裂纹交汇和柔性连
接的现象，这说明这种受力状态对该材料来说是比较有益的，这也就是为什么粉末冶
金摩擦材料总是要与钢背烧结或抱缘后使用的原因。无论是加围压或无围压破碎的硬
质颗粒都是长条形的，圆形硬质颗粒却没发现破碎，而硬质颗粒起增强基体的强度和
增强摩擦系数的作用，为此得出推论，硬质颗粒的粒度应细化，并以球形为主，即可
延缓基体的强度下降。
(5)用MARC软件对闸瓦刹车和制动盘刹车的情形进行了数值模拟，利用接触摩擦
热祸合理论，得出了该材料刹车时闸瓦的温度场分布和应力分布，计算结果与实验数
据符合较好，说明数值模拟是成功的。得出闸瓦表面的温度随时间呈幂次曲线分布，
而闸瓦内部的温度随离摩擦表面的距离呈线性分布，在对制动盘进行计算时，利用锻
钢制动盘的参数作为对偶材料，进行动态热祸合计算，得出了闸片中的温度场和应力
分布。由计算结果看，闸片的变量变化首先发生在外边缘，为此得出推论，如果加固
闸片的外边缘部位，或把钢背和闸片在焊接时人为的做成楔形，将有利于提高闸片的
寿命。
This thesis focuses on the study of copper-based friction materials by powder metallurgy and their high temperature fatique wear properties and dynamic behaviors.
(1) Three formulas for copper-based friction materials are proposed based on the previous work by others. The wt % of copper in the three formulas are 68~75,69-76,and 65-68, respectively. The test samples were made via compressive sintering. The mechanical and heat conductive parameters were measured, which showed that the heat conduction of the third material was slightly higher. The frictional wear tests for the three materials were conducted on MM-1000 test machine with 30CrSiMoVA steel as the couple material, referring to the JB3063-82 standard. The test samples were circular rings with inner and outer diameters of 53mm and 75mm, respectively. The working condition for measuring the variation of the coefficient of friction with the rotation speed was as follows: rotation speeds ~ 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 and 5000r/min, respectively, pressure ~ 0.98MPa, and rotational inertia momentum ~ 0.196N.m.s. The pressure was adjusted to the desired value, and braking was performed three times at each rotation speed.
Upon completion of a test, the sample and its couple were both cooled down to room temperature, and the changes in the height were measured on spots. The working condition for measuring the variation of the coefficient of friction with the pressure was as follows: rotation speed ~ 3000r/min, rotational inertia momentum ~ 0.196N.m.s., and the braking pressure ~ 0.5, 0.8, 1.1, 1.4, and 1.7 MPa, respectively. Through these tests, the third material was found to be superior in both stability and frictional wear property.
(2) The high temperature fatigue wear behavior of this material was investigated. The relation between the wear and temperature was fitted approximately, and the failure of the material was analyzed. The experiments were conducted on the TE77 high temperature fatigue wear test machine with wheel steel as the couple material. It was shown from the experiments that, the coefficient of friction was relatively low at room temperature and gradually decreased with increasing temperature in the range from 100 C to 350 C, with cohesion taking place at 500 C. From this, the critical temperature for the fatigue wear of the material was determined to be 350 C. The fatigue wear at room temperature and 300C was most insignificant, and the microscopic analysis showed that at 300C a solid lubricant layer formed at the material surface and there was phase transition relating to the surface structure. At 500 C, the coefficient of friction increased, the microcracks extended beneath the sliding surfaces and gradually coalesc
ence, leading to the spallation of the tribological surfaces and the increase in the wear fraction. The X-ray analysis for the 300 C sample showed that the components of the surface oxide changed after fatigue friction, from FeO to FeN dominant, and solid lubricant layer of BN and PbO etc. formed
which reduced the wear. One source for the origin of the furrow and microcracks was due to the hard particles of SiO2 that spall and took part in the friction during the process of the fatigue wear.
(3) The dynamic behavior of this material under shock loading was investigated, and a dynamic constitutive model was proposed. Quasi-static tests at strain rates of 10-4 /s~10-3 /s were performed before the dynamic tests in order to make a comparison and also acquire parameters for numerical simulations. The elastic moduli and elastic and plastic Poisson's ratios were measured. The static curves showed the strain-hardening effect. The static compression failure was due to shear failure, and dislocation erosion hold were seen on the surface of the test cylinder. Shock tests were conducted on Hopkinson pressure bar at strain rates of 250,560,780,1000 and 1600/s, respectively. Strain rate hardening effect was observed at rates under 1000/s, whereas weakening effect was seen at higher rates, which means that 1000/s is the critical shock strain
(1)在综合国内外关于铜基粉末冶金摩擦材料配方的基础上，研制了三种比较相近的铜基粉末冶金摩擦材料配方。经混合压制烧结，最后制成试验所需样品。测量了三种材料的力学参数和热传导参数。在MM-1000实验机上做了三种材料的摩擦磨损试验。其中测量了摩擦系数随转速的变化，和摩擦系数随压力的变化。通过试验选出了稳定性、摩擦磨损性均较好的第三种材料。
(2)测试了该材料的高温疲劳磨损性能，近似拟合了该材料的磨损随温度的变化规律曲线，并对材料进行了失效分析。试验结果表明：在室温～100℃之间材料的摩擦系数随着温度的升高而增大，在100℃～350℃之间时，随温度升高摩擦系数逐渐降低，在350～500℃之间摩擦系数随温度的升高又增大，直到500℃发生粘附现象。从疲劳磨损看，在室温和300℃时磨损最小，微观分析发现在300℃时，摩擦材料的表面形成了一层固体润滑层，表面化合物发生了变化，得出该材料疲劳磨损的临界温度为350℃。而在500℃时摩擦系数上升，微裂纹沿滑移面之间扩展，并逐步相互贯通，导致摩擦面呈层状剥落，使磨损率增加；做300℃磨损后X衍射分析表明，疲劳摩擦后材料表层的氧化物发生了改变，由原来的以FeO为主变为以FeN为主，且形成BN、PbO等固体润滑层，从而使磨损降低。在疲劳摩擦过程中，硬质颗粒SiO_2脱落，作为磨粒参与摩擦，是造成犁沟和微裂纹的起源之一。
(3)研究了该材料的冲击动态性能。在做冲击动态实验之前为了与准静态试验比较并得到数值模拟的参数，又做了该材料的准静态试验，应变率范围为10~(-4)／s～10~(-3)／s，测出了材料的弹性模量和弹、塑性泊松比，从静态曲线看该材料有应变硬化效应，静态压缩破坏为剪切破坏，压缩后圆柱表面可以看到位错蚀坑。在Hopkinson压杆上做了材料的冲击实验，得出该材料在10~2／S～10~3／s应变率范围的动态应力应变曲线，从试验曲线看，该材料在应变率1000／s以下时，表现为应变率强化效应，但当应变率高于1000／s时，材料有损伤软化趋势，也就是说，该材料的冲击临界应变率为1000／s左右；通过微观分析可知，当应变率为1600／s时，材料发生了滑移剪切破坏，从试件表面可以看到大量的平行滑移裂纹使材料断裂；塑性变形以滑移为主伴有少量孪晶，同时有蜘蛛状裂纹交汇和柔性连接现象，也伴随有硬质颗粒的破碎，在裂纹中发现有大量的碳纤维组织，这些纤维对裂纹的扩展起抑制作用。最后在粘弹性模型的基础上用加入粘塑性项的组合模型拟合了这种材料在1000／s应变率下的本构方程，并与试验结果符合较好。
(4)做了材料的被动围压实验，以20#钢为套筒，油膜为试件和套筒之间的传递介
质。试验后微观分析发现组织中有大量的孪晶发生，也就是说，在被动围压情况下，
材料由于环向和径向受到约束使滑移受限，形变以孪晶为主，微裂纹的扩展还是在初
始裂纹和孔洞处，但与同一应变率不加围压的试件相比，在应变率为1650/5时，试件
中既有微小裂纹，同时也有少量硬质颗粒的破碎，但没发现蜘蛛状裂纹交汇和柔性连
接的现象，这说明这种受力状态对该材料来说是比较有益的，这也就是为什么粉末冶
金摩擦材料总是要与钢背烧结或抱缘后使用的原因。无论是加围压或无围压破碎的硬
质颗粒都是长条形的，圆形硬质颗粒却没发现破碎，而硬质颗粒起增强基体的强度和
增强摩擦系数的作用，为此得出推论，硬质颗粒的粒度应细化，并以球形为主，即可
延缓基体的强度下降。
(5)用MARC软件对闸瓦刹车和制动盘刹车的情形进行了数值模拟，利用接触摩擦
热祸合理论，得出了该材料刹车时闸瓦的温度场分布和应力分布，计算结果与实验数
据符合较好，说明数值模拟是成功的。得出闸瓦表面的温度随时间呈幂次曲线分布，
而闸瓦内部的温度随离摩擦表面的距离呈线性分布，在对制动盘进行计算时，利用锻
钢制动盘的参数作为对偶材料，进行动态热祸合计算，得出了闸片中的温度场和应力
分布。由计算结果看，闸片的变量变化首先发生在外边缘，为此得出推论，如果加固
闸片的外边缘部位，或把钢背和闸片在焊接时人为的做成楔形，将有利于提高闸片的
寿命。
This thesis focuses on the study of copper-based friction materials by powder metallurgy and their high temperature fatique wear properties and dynamic behaviors.
(1) Three formulas for copper-based friction materials are proposed based on the previous work by others. The wt % of copper in the three formulas are 68~75,69-76,and 65-68, respectively. The test samples were made via compressive sintering. The mechanical and heat conductive parameters were measured, which showed that the heat conduction of the third material was slightly higher. The frictional wear tests for the three materials were conducted on MM-1000 test machine with 30CrSiMoVA steel as the couple material, referring to the JB3063-82 standard. The test samples were circular rings with inner and outer diameters of 53mm and 75mm, respectively. The working condition for measuring the variation of the coefficient of friction with the rotation speed was as follows: rotation speeds ~ 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 and 5000r/min, respectively, pressure ~ 0.98MPa, and rotational inertia momentum ~ 0.196N.m.s. The pressure was adjusted to the desired value, and braking was performed three times at each rotation speed.
Upon completion of a test, the sample and its couple were both cooled down to room temperature, and the changes in the height were measured on spots. The working condition for measuring the variation of the coefficient of friction with the pressure was as follows: rotation speed ~ 3000r/min, rotational inertia momentum ~ 0.196N.m.s., and the braking pressure ~ 0.5, 0.8, 1.1, 1.4, and 1.7 MPa, respectively. Through these tests, the third material was found to be superior in both stability and frictional wear property.
(2) The high temperature fatigue wear behavior of this material was investigated. The relation between the wear and temperature was fitted approximately, and the failure of the material was analyzed. The experiments were conducted on the TE77 high temperature fatigue wear test machine with wheel steel as the couple material. It was shown from the experiments that, the coefficient of friction was relatively low at room temperature and gradually decreased with increasing temperature in the range from 100 C to 350 C, with cohesion taking place at 500 C. From this, the critical temperature for the fatigue wear of the material was determined to be 350 C. The fatigue wear at room temperature and 300C was most insignificant, and the microscopic analysis showed that at 300C a solid lubricant layer formed at the material surface and there was phase transition relating to the surface structure. At 500 C, the coefficient of friction increased, the microcracks extended beneath the sliding surfaces and gradually coalesc
ence, leading to the spallation of the tribological surfaces and the increase in the wear fraction. The X-ray analysis for the 300 C sample showed that the components of the surface oxide changed after fatigue friction, from FeO to FeN dominant, and solid lubricant layer of BN and PbO etc. formed
which reduced the wear. One source for the origin of the furrow and microcracks was due to the hard particles of SiO2 that spall and took part in the friction during the process of the fatigue wear.
(3) The dynamic behavior of this material under shock loading was investigated, and a dynamic constitutive model was proposed. Quasi-static tests at strain rates of 10-4 /s~10-3 /s were performed before the dynamic tests in order to make a comparison and also acquire parameters for numerical simulations. The elastic moduli and elastic and plastic Poisson's ratios were measured. The static curves showed the strain-hardening effect. The static compression failure was due to shear failure, and dislocation erosion hold were seen on the surface of the test cylinder. Shock tests were conducted on Hopkinson pressure bar at strain rates of 250,560,780,1000 and 1600/s, respectively. Strain rate hardening effect was observed at rates under 1000/s, whereas weakening effect was seen at higher rates, which means that 1000/s is the critical shock strain
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