企业共享领导的理论与实证研究
|
摘要
企业共享领导被认为是21世纪领导学和管理学领域研究的一个新亮点。共享领导是指一个动态的、交互的群体影响过程,在这一过程中将根据任务特点由具有相应专长的团队成员履行领导职能并根据情境变化动态更替领导角色以实现团队或组织的目标。本研究主要包括6个部分,采用文献分析、访谈、问卷调查等研究方法,根据所收集的18家企业1748份有效问卷(180个团队)的数据,首次实证探讨了企业共享领导的内容结构及相关问题。
1.运用探索性因子分析和验证性因子分析方法,构建了包含绩效期望、团队学习、相互协作和权责共享四个维度的企业共享领导内容结构模型。这个问卷的信度和效度均达到了心理测量学的要求。
2.运用路径分析方法,探讨了企业共享领导的五个主要影响因素,即组织支持、共同信念、团队知识、人员异质和自主决定。这些影响因素越突出共享领导效果越显著。
3.运用多层线性模型分析方法,发现企业共享领导能够显著地预测团队成员的工作满意度、组织承诺、组织公民行为、离职意向和团队绩效,并且共享领导各维度对上述效果变量影响程度不同。
4.运用层次回归分析方法,发现共享领导是影响因素和效果变量之间的中介变量。
5.运用层次回归分析方法,发现任务复杂性和互依性是共享领导与效果变量之间的调节变量。
6.运用方差分析方法,发现不同人口学、组织学变量的员工,在共享领导内容结构的不同维度上存在显著的认知差异。
Shared Leadership in enterprises is regarded as one of the critical issues in the fields of Leadership and Management in the 21st century.Shared Leadership is defined as a dynamic interactive collectively-influenced process in which the leadership function needs to be transferred to those members with strengths(e.g. knowledge,skills) according to the working situation to the achievement of team or organizational goals or both.On the basis of literature review,interview and questionnaire survey,this dissertation with six parts takes the initiative to probe into the content structure of Shared Leadership in enterprises and its related issues,based upon 1748 subjects(180 teams) from 18 enterprises.
First,exploratory factor analysis(EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis(CFA) are used to test the conceptual model of Shared Leadership constructed with four factors of performance expectation,team learning,mutual coordination and power and responsibilities shared.The reliability and validity of Shared Leadership Questionnaire are highly enough.
Second,path analysis is used to reveal the main influence factors of Shared Leadership which are comprised of organizational support,shared belief,team knowledge,demographical heterogeneity and autonomy.The more effects these factors have,the more obvious the effectiveness of Shared Leadership is.
Third,hierarchical liner modeling(HLM) is used to test that Shared Leadership can be applied to obviously predict team members' job satisfaction, organizational commitment,organizational commitment behavior,turnover intention and team performance.It turns out that all the influential dimensions have different effects on the outcome variables.
Fourth,hierarchical regression analysis is used to test whether Shared Leadership is the mediator between influential factors and outcome variables.
Fifth,hierarchical regression analysis is used to test whether task complexity and interdependence are the moderators between Shared Leadership and outcome variables.
Sixth,ANOVA is used to test whether the demographical and organizational variables have some significant effects upon the content of Shared Leadership.
1.运用探索性因子分析和验证性因子分析方法,构建了包含绩效期望、团队学习、相互协作和权责共享四个维度的企业共享领导内容结构模型。这个问卷的信度和效度均达到了心理测量学的要求。
2.运用路径分析方法,探讨了企业共享领导的五个主要影响因素,即组织支持、共同信念、团队知识、人员异质和自主决定。这些影响因素越突出共享领导效果越显著。
3.运用多层线性模型分析方法,发现企业共享领导能够显著地预测团队成员的工作满意度、组织承诺、组织公民行为、离职意向和团队绩效,并且共享领导各维度对上述效果变量影响程度不同。
4.运用层次回归分析方法,发现共享领导是影响因素和效果变量之间的中介变量。
5.运用层次回归分析方法,发现任务复杂性和互依性是共享领导与效果变量之间的调节变量。
6.运用方差分析方法,发现不同人口学、组织学变量的员工,在共享领导内容结构的不同维度上存在显著的认知差异。
Shared Leadership in enterprises is regarded as one of the critical issues in the fields of Leadership and Management in the 21st century.Shared Leadership is defined as a dynamic interactive collectively-influenced process in which the leadership function needs to be transferred to those members with strengths(e.g. knowledge,skills) according to the working situation to the achievement of team or organizational goals or both.On the basis of literature review,interview and questionnaire survey,this dissertation with six parts takes the initiative to probe into the content structure of Shared Leadership in enterprises and its related issues,based upon 1748 subjects(180 teams) from 18 enterprises.
First,exploratory factor analysis(EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis(CFA) are used to test the conceptual model of Shared Leadership constructed with four factors of performance expectation,team learning,mutual coordination and power and responsibilities shared.The reliability and validity of Shared Leadership Questionnaire are highly enough.
Second,path analysis is used to reveal the main influence factors of Shared Leadership which are comprised of organizational support,shared belief,team knowledge,demographical heterogeneity and autonomy.The more effects these factors have,the more obvious the effectiveness of Shared Leadership is.
Third,hierarchical liner modeling(HLM) is used to test that Shared Leadership can be applied to obviously predict team members' job satisfaction, organizational commitment,organizational commitment behavior,turnover intention and team performance.It turns out that all the influential dimensions have different effects on the outcome variables.
Fourth,hierarchical regression analysis is used to test whether Shared Leadership is the mediator between influential factors and outcome variables.
Fifth,hierarchical regression analysis is used to test whether task complexity and interdependence are the moderators between Shared Leadership and outcome variables.
Sixth,ANOVA is used to test whether the demographical and organizational variables have some significant effects upon the content of Shared Leadership.
引文
1.彼得·圣吉(1995).第五项修炼——学习型组织的艺术与实务[M].上海:上海三联出版社.
2.陈晓萍,徐淑英,樊景立(2008).组织与管理研究的实证方法[M].北京:北京大学出版社.
3.侯杰泰,温忠麟,成子娟(2004).结构方程模型及其应用[M].北京:教育科学出版社.
4.黄芳铭(2005).结构方程模式:理论与应用[M].北京:中国税务出版社.
5.凌文辁,方俐洛(2003).心理与行为测量[M].北京:机械工业出版社.
6.邱皓政(2004).结构方程模式:LISREL的理论、技术与应用[M].台北:双叶书廊有限公司.
7.邱皓政(2009).结构方程模型的原理与应用[M].北京:中国轻工业出版社.
8.温福星(2009).阶层线性模型的原理与应用[M].北京:中国轻工业出版社.
9.吴明隆(2003).SPSS统计应用实务[M].北京:科学出版社.
10.薛薇(2004).SPSS统计分析及方法应用[M].北京:电子工业出版社.
11.张雷,雷雳,郭伯良(2003).多层线性模型应用[M].北京:教育科学出版社.
12.周子敬(2006).结构方程模式:精通LISREL[M].台北:全华科技图书有限公司.
1.Abelson,M.A.(1986).Examination of avoidable and unavoidable turnover.Journal of Applied Psychology,72(3),382-386.
2.Adams,J.S.(1963).Wage inequities,productivity and work quality.Industrial Relationship,3,9-16.
3.Aldag,R.J.,& Fuller,S.R.(1993).Beyond Fiasco:A Reappraisal of the Groupthink Phenomenon and a New Model of Groupthink Decision Processes.Psychological Bulletin,113(3),533-552.
4.Alderfer,C.P.(1987).An intergroup perspective on group dynamics.In J.W.Lorsch(Ed.),Handbook of organizational behavior(pp.190-222).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Ball.
5.Akaike,H.(1987).Factor analysis and AIC.Psychometrika,52(3),317-332.
6.Raudenbush,S.W.,& Bryk,A.S.(2002).Bierarchical linear models(2nd Ed.).Newbury Park,CA:Sage Publications,Inc.
7.Arvey,R.D.,& Ivancevitch,J.M.(1980).Punishment in organizations:A review,propositions,and research suggestions.Academy of Management Review,5(1),123-132.
8.Aryee,S.,Budhwar,P.,& Chen,Z.(2002).Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes:Test of a social exchange model.Journal of Organiaitional Behavior.23,267-285.
9.Avila,R.A.,Fern,E.F.,& Mann,O.K.(1988).Unraveling criteria for assessing the performance of salespeople:A causal analysis.Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management,9,45-54.
10.Avolio,B.J.,Bass,B.M.,&Jung,D.I.(1999).Re-examinating the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire.Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,72,441-462.
11.Avolio,B.J.,Jung,D.,Murry,W.,& Sivasubramaniam,N.(1996).Building highly developed teams:Focusing on shared leadership process,efficacy,trust,and performance.In M.M.Beyerlein,D.A.Johnson,& S.T.Beyerlein(Eds.):Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams(pp.173-209).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
12.Avolio,B.J.,Sivasubramaniam,N.,Murry,W.D.,Jung,D.,&Garger,J.W.(2003).Assessing Shared Leadership:Development and preliminary validation of a Team Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.143-172).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
13.Avolio,B.J.,&Bass,B.M.(1988).Transformational leadership,charisma,and beyond.In J.G.Hunt,B.R.Baliga,H.P.Dachler,& C.A.Schreisheim(Eds.),Emerging leadership vistas(pp.29-50).Lexington,MA:Lexington.
14.Bagozzi,R.P.,& Yi,Y.(1998).On the Evaluation of Structural Equation Models.Journal of Academy Marketing Science,16,74-94.
15.Balkundi,P.,& Kilduff.M.(2005).The ties that lead:A social network approach to leadership.Leadership Quarterly,16(6),941-961.
16.Bandura,A.(1986).Social foundational of thought and action:Asocial-cognitive theory.Englewood Cliff;,NJ:Prentice Hall.
17.Barker,J.R.(1993).Tightening the iron cage:Concertive control in self-managing teams.Administrative Science Quarterly,38,408-438.
18.Barney,J.(1991).Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage.Journal of Management,17,99-120.
19.Baron,R.M.,& Kenny,D.A.(1986).The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research:Conceptual strategic,and statistical considerations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,51(6):1173-1182.
20.Barry,D.(1991).Managing the Bossless Team:Lessons in Distributed Leadership.Organizational Dynamics,20(1),31-47.
21.Bartol,K.M.& Martin,D.C.(1986).Women and Men in Task Groups.In R.D.Ashmore & F.K.Del Boca(Eds.),The Social Psychology of Female-Male Relations (pp.259-310).New York: Academic Press.
22.Bass,B.M.(1985).Leadership and performance beyond expectations.New York:Free Press;London:Collier Macmillan.
23.Bass,B.M.(1990):Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership:theory,research,and managerial applications.New York:Free Press;London:Collier Macmillan.
24.Bass,B.M.(1998).Transformational leadership:Industrial,military,and educational impact.Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.
25.Bass,B.M.,& Avolio,B.J.(1990).Transformational Leadership Development:Manual for Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire,Palo Alto,California:Consulting Psychologists Press.
26.Bass,B.M.,& Avolio,B.J.(1993).Transformational leadership:A response to critiques. In J.G.Hunt,B.R.Baliga,H.P.Dachler,& C.A.Schriesheim(Eds.),Emerging leadership vistas(pp.29-40).Lexington,MA:Lexington.
27.Bass,B.M.,Avolio,B.J.,& Goodheim,L.(1987).Biography and the assessment of transformational leadership at the world-class level.Journal of Management,13,7-19.
28.Benne,K.,& Sheats,P.(1948).Functional roles of group members.Journal of Social Issues,4,41-49.
29.Bentler,P M.(1990).Comparative fit indexes in structural models.Psychological Bulletin,107(2),238-246.
30.Bentler,P.M.,& Bonett,D.G.(1980).Significance tests and goodness-of-fit in the analysis of covariance structures.Psychological Bulletin,88,588-600.
31.Berger,J.,Cohen,B.P.,& Zelditch,M.(1972).Status characteristics and social interaction.American Sociological Review,37,241-256.
32.Blau,P.M.(1964).Exchange and power in social life.New York:John Wiley & Sons.
33.Blau,J.R.,& Alba,R.D.(1982).Empowering nets of participation.Administrative Science Quarterly,27(3),363-379.
34.Bowers,D.J.& Seashore,S.E.(1966).Predicting Organizational Effectiveness with a Four Factors Theory of Leadership.Administrative Science Quarterly,11,238-263.
35.Bradford,D.L.,& Cohen,A.R.(1998).Power up:Transforming organization through shared leadership.New York:John Wiley & Sons.
36.Brown,M.H.& Hosking.D.M.(1986).Distributed Leadership and Skilled Performance as Successful Organization in Social Movements.Human Relations,39(1),65-79.
37.Browne,M.W.& Arminger,G.(1995).Specification and estimation of mean and covariance models,Plenum Press,New York.
38.Browne,M.W.,& Cudeck,R.(1993).Alternative ways of assessing model fit.In K.A.Bollen & J.S.Long(Eds.),Testing structural equation models(pp.136-162).Newbury Park.CA:Sage.
39.Brounstein,M.(2002).Managing teams for dummies.New York:Wiley Publications.
40.Brown.M.E.,& Gioia,D.A.(2002).Making things click:Distributive leadership in an online division of an offline organization.Leadership Quarterly,13(4),397-419.
41.Bryman,A.(1992).Charisma and leadership in organizations.London:Sage.
42.Bryson,J.M.,& Crosby,B.C.(1992).Leadership for the common good:Tackling public problems in a shared-power world.San Francisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.
43.Burke,C.S.,Fiore,S.M.,& Salas,E.(2003).The role of Shared Cognition in enabling Shared Leadership and team adaptability.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.103-122).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
44.Burns,J.M.(1978).Leadership.New York:Harper & Row.
45.Cammann,C.,Fichman,M.,Jenkins,D.,& Klesh,J.(1983).Assessing the attitudes and perceptions of organizational members.In S.E.Seashore,E.E.Lawler,P.H.Mirvis,& C.Cammann(Eds.),Assessing organizational change:A guide to methods,measures and practices(pp.71-138).New York:John Wiley & Sons.
46.Campbell,D.J.(1988).Task Complexity:A Review and Analysis.Academy of Management Review,13,40-52.
47.Campbell,J.M.,& Kinion.E.S.(1993).Teaching eadership/followership to RN-to-MSN students.Journal of Nursing Education.32(3):138-40.
48.Campion,M.A.,Medsker,G.J.,& Higgs,A.C.(1993).Relations between work group characteristics and effectiveness:Implications for designing effective work groups.Personnel Psychology,46,823-855.
49.Cannon-Bowers J.A,& Salas,E.(2001).Reflections on shared cognition.Journal of Organizational Behavior,22:195-202.
50.Cannon-Bowers J.A.,Salas E.,Converse,S.(1993).Shared mental models in expert team decision making.In Individual and Group Decision Making,Castellan N.J.(ed.).Lawrence Erlbaum Associates:Hillsdale,N.J.:221-246.
51.Carson,J.B.,Tesluk,P.E.,& Marrone,J.A.(2007).Shared Leadership in Teams:An Investigation of Antecedent Conditions and Performance.Academy of Management Journal,Vol.50,No.5,1217-1234.
52.Chan(1998).Functional relations among constructs in the same content domain at different levels of analysis:A typology of composition models.Journal of Applied Psychology,83,234-246.
53.Chen,G.,& Bliese,P.D.(2002).The role of different levels of leadership in predicting self-efficacy and collective efficacy:Evidence for discontinuity.Journal of Applied Psychology,87(3),546-556.
54.Cohen,J.(1988).Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd Ed.).Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
55.Cohen,S.G.& Bailey,D.R.(1997).What makes teams work:group effectiveness research from the shop floor to the executive suite.Journal of Management,23(3):239-290
56.Conger,J.A.,& Kanungo,R.N.(1988).The Empowerment Process:Integrating theory and practice.Academy of Management Review.13(3),471-482.
57.Conger,J.A.,Kanungo,R.N.,& Menon,S.T.(2000).Charismatic leadership and follower effects.Journal of Organizational Behavior,21:747-767.
58.Cooke,N.J.,Salas,E.,Cannon-Bowers,J.A.& Stout,R.(2000).Measuring team knowledge.Human Factors 42:151-173.
59.Cooper,A.F.,Higgott,R.A.,& Nossal,K.R.(1991).Bound to follow? Leadership and followership in the gulf conflict.Political Science Quarterly,106(3),391-410.
60.Cox,J.F.(1994).The effects of SuperLeadership training on leader behavior,subordinate self-leader behavior,and subordinate citizenship behacior.Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Maryland,College Park.
61.Cox,J.F.,Pearce,C.L.,& Perry,M.L.(2003).Toward a model of Shared Leadership and distributed influence in the innovation process:How Shared Leadership can enhance New Product Development Team dynamics and effectiveness.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.48-76).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
62.Cox,J.F.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1996).Leadership and team citizenship behavior:A model and measures.In M.Beyerlein,D.Johnson,& S.Beyerleinhip (Vol.3,pp.1-41).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
63.Cropanzano,R.,James,K.,& Konovsky,M.A.(1993).Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes and job performance.Journal of Organizational Behavior,14,595-606.
64.Cropanzano,R.,Howes,J.C.,Grandey,A.A.,& Toth,P.(1997).The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors,attitudes,and stress.Journal of Organizational Behavior,18,159-180.
65.Crouch,A.& Yetton,P.(1998).The management team:An equilibrium model of manager and subordinate performance and behavior.In J.G.Hunt,B.R.Baliga,H.P.Dachler,& C.A.Schriesheim(Eds.),Emerging leadership vistas:107-127.Lexington.MA:Lexington Nooks.
66.Dachler,H.P.(1984).Commentary on refocusing leadership from a social systems perspective.In J.Hunt,D.Hosking,C.Schriesheim & R.Stewart(eds),Leaders and managers:international perspectives on managerial behavior and leadership(pp.100-108),Pergamon Press,New York.
67.Danching,Ruan(1993).Social Networks in Urban China,Doctoral Dissertation,Columbia University.
68.Dansereau,F.,Graen,G.,& Haga,W.J.(1975).A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations.Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,13,46-78.
69.Dansereau,F.,Yammarino,F.J.,& Markham,S.E.(1995).Leadership:The multiple level approaches.Leadership Quarterly,6(3),251-263.
70.Deci,E.L.,Connell,J.P.& Ryan,R.M.(1989).The support of autonomy and the control of behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,53(6):1024-1037.
71.Denhardt,R.B.(1993).The pursuit of significance:Strategies for management in public organization.Wadsworth.
72.Denhardt,J.V.,& Denhardt,R.B.(2003).The new public service:Serving not steering.Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe.
73.DiMaggio,P.J.& Powell,W.(1983).The Iron Cage Revisited:Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.American Sociological Review,48,147-60.
74.Dixon,M.A.,& Cunningham,G.(2006).Data aggregation in multilevel analysis:A Review of conceptual and statistical issues.Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science,10,85-107.
75.Dubin,R.,Champoux,J.E.& Porter,L.W.(1975).Central Life Interests and Organizational Commitment of Workers.Administrative Science Quarterly,20,411-421.
76.Dunphy,D.& Bryant,B.(1996).Teams:Panaceas or prescriptions for improved performance?Human Relations,49,677-699.
77.Eisenberger,R.,Huntington,R.,Hutchison,S.,& Sowa,D.(1986).Perceived organizational support.Journal of Applied Psychology,71:500-507.
78.Ensley,M.D.,& Pearce,C.L.(2001).Shared cognition in top management teams:implications for new venture performance.Journal of Organizational Behavior,22(2),pp.145-160.
79.Ensley,M.D.,Pearson,A.W.& Pearce,C.L.(2003).Shared leadership,top management team process and new venture performance:A theoretical model and research agenda.Human Resource Management Review,13(2),329-346.
80.Ensley,M.D.,Hmieleski,K.M.,& Pearce,C.L.(2006).The importance of vertical and shared leadership within new venture top management teams:Implications for the performance of startups.Leadership Quarterly,17(3),pp.217-231.
81.Erez.M.,& Arad,R.(1986).Participative goal-setting:Social,motivational,and cognitive factors.Journal of Applied Psychology,71,591-597.
82.Farh,J.L.,Earley,P.C.,& Lin,S.C.(1997).Impetus for Extraordinary Action:A Cultural Analysis of Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Chinese Society.Administrative Science Quarterly,42,421-444.
83.Festinger,L.(1954).A theory of social comparison processes.Human Relations,7,117-140.
84.Fielding,R.T.(1999).Shared leadership in the Apache Project.Communications of ACM,42,42-45.
85.Fleishman,E.A.(1953).The description of supervisory behavior.Journal of Applied Psychology,37,1-6.
86.Fletcher,J.K.& Kaufer,K.(2003).Shared Leadership:Paradoxes and possibility.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership(pp.19-47).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
87.Follett.M.P.(1924).Creative experience.New York:Longman Green.
88.Follett.M.P.(1941).Dynamic Administration:The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett.Metcalf,H.C.,& Urwick,L.(Eds.).NY:Harper & Bros.
89.French,J.R.P.,& Raven,B.H.(1959).The bases of social power.In D.Cartwright and A.Zander(Eds.),Group dynamics.New York:Harper & Row.
90.Friedkin,N.E.(1998).A structural theory of social influence.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press.
91.Friedkin,N.E.(1999).Choice shift and group polarization.American Sociological Review,64,856-875.
92.Ganzach,Y.(1998).Intelligence and Job Satisfaction.Academy of Management Journal,41(5).526-539.
93.George,J.(1990).Personality,affect,and behavior in groups.Journal of Applied Psychology,75,107-116.
94.George,V.,Burke,L.J.,Rodgers,B.,Duthie,N.,Hoffmann,M.L.,Koceja,V.,et al.(2002).Developing staff nurse shared leadership behavior in professional nursing practice.Nursing Administration Quarterly,26,44-60.
95.Gibb,C.A.(1954).Leadership.In G.Lindzey(Ed.).Handbook of social psychology (Vol.2). Cambridge,MA:Addison Wesley.
96.Gladstein,D.L.(1984).Groups in Context:A model of Task Group Effectiveness.Administrative Science Quarterly,29,499-517.
97.Graen,G.B.(1976).Role making processes within complex organizations.In M.D.Dunnette (Ed.),Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp.1201-1245).Chicago:Rand McNally.
98.Graen,G.B.,& Scandura,T.A.(1987).Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing.In L L.Cummings & B.M.Staw(Eds.),Research in organizational behavior(pp.175-208).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
99.Graham,J.W.(1989).Organizational citizenship behavior:Construct redefinition,operationalization,and validation.Unpublished working paper,Loyola University of Chicago,Chicago,IL.
100.Greene,L.R..Morrison,T.L.,& Tischler,N.G.(1981).Gender and authority:Effects oil perceptions of small group co-leaders.Small Group Behavior,12(4),401-413.
101.Gronn,P.(2002).Distributed leadership as a unit of analysis.Leadership Quarterly,13(4),423-451.
102.Gruneberg,M.M.(1979).Understanding job satisfaction.New York:Wiley.
103.Hackman.J.R.(1987).The design of work teams.In J.W.Lorsch(Ed.),Handdbook of organizational behavior(pp.315-342).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
104.Hackman,J.R.,& Walton,R.E.(1986).Leading groups in organizations.In P,S.Goodman & Associates(Eds.),Designing effective work groups(pp.72-119).San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
105.Hair,J.F.,Anderson,R.E.,Tatham,R.L.& Black,W.C.(1998).Multivariate data analysis (5th edition).Prentice Hall International:UK.
106.Hallinger,P.(2000).Systems Thinking Systems Changing:A Computer Simulation for Learning How to Make Schools Smart.In K.Leithwood and K.S.Louis (Eds.),Understanding Schools as Intelligent Systemspp(pp.141-162).New Youk:JAI Press.
107.Halpin,A.W.,& Winer,B.J.(1957).A factorial study of the leader behavior descriptions.In R.M.Stogdill & E.A.Coons(Eds.),Leader behavior:Its description and measurement (pp.39-51).Columbus:Ohio State University Bureau of Business Research.
108.Harrison,S.(1996).Practicing dietetics without a traditional dietetics department:Shared governance.Journal of the American Dietetic Association,96,447-555.
109.Hater,J.J.,& Bass,B.M.(1998).Superiors' evaluations and subordinates' perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership.Journal of Applied Psychology,73,695-702.
110.Hayek,F.A.(1945).The Use of Knowledge in Society.American Economic Review,35(4),519-530.
111.Heifetz,R.A.(1994).Leadership without easy answers.Cambridge,Massachusetts,and London,England:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
112.Hennan,D.A.,& Bennis,W.(1999).Co-leadership:The power of great partnerships.New York:Wiley.
113.Herzog.(1981).Communication between co-leaders:Fact or myth:A student's perspective.Social Work with Groups,3(4),19-29.
114.Hoegl,M.& Muethel,M.(2007).Shared Leadership in Dispersed Innovation Teams:Mutual Influence and Procative Followership.Academy of Management Proceedings,1-6.
115.Hoelter,J.W.(1983).The Analysis of Covariance Structures:Goodness-of-fit Indices.Sociological Methods and Research,11,325-344.
116.Hoffman,L.R.(1959).Homogeneity of member personality and its effect on group problem-solving.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,58,27-32.
117.Hollander,E.P.(1978).Leadership dynamics:A practical guide to effective relationships.New York:Free Press.
118.Homans,G.C.(1958).Social Behavior as Exchange.The American Journal of Sociology,63,597-606.
119.Hooker,C.& Csikszentmihalyi,M.(2003).Flow,creativity and Shared Leadership:Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.217-234).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
120.Houghton,J.D.,Neck,C.P.,& Manz,C.C.(2003).Self-leadership and superleadership:The heart and art of creating Shared Leadership in teams.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.123-140).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
121.House,R.J.(1971).A path goal theory of leader effectiveness.Administrative Science Quarterly,16,321-338.
122.House,R.J.(1977).A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership.In J.G.Hunt & L.L.Larson (Eds.),Leadership:The cutting edge(pp.189-207).Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press.
123.House,R.J.,& Mitchell,T.R.(1974).Path-goal theory of leadership.Journal of Contemporary Business,3,81-97.
124.House,R.,Rousseau,D.M.& Thomas-Hunt,M.(1995).The meso-paradigm:A framework for the integration of micro and macro organizational behavior.In L.L.Cummings,& B.M.Straw(Eds.),Research in Organizational behavior(pp.71-114).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
125.Hoy,W.K.&.Miskel,C.G.(1996).Educational Administration:Theory,Research,and Practice(5th,Ed.).New York:McGraw-Hill,Inc.
126.Igharia,M.,& Greenhaus,J.H.(1992).Determinants of MIS employees' turnover intentions:a structural equation model.Personnel Management,35(2),34-49.
127.Iverson,R.D.(1999).An event history analysis of employee turnover:the case of hospital employees in Australia.Human Resource Management Review,9(4):397-418.
128.Jackson,S.(2000).A Qualitative Evaluation of Shared Leadership barriers,Drivers,and Recommendations.Journal of Management in Medicine.14(3,4),166-178.
129.James,L.R.,Demaree,R.G.,& Wolf,G.(1993).r_(wg):An assessment of within-group interrater agreement.Journal of Applied Psychology,78(2),306-309.
130.Jehn,K.A.,Chadwick,C.,& Thatcher,S.(1997).To agree or not to agree:The effects of value congruence,member diversity and conflict on workgroup outcomes.International journal of conflict management,8:287-305.
131.Jensen,W.C.& Meckling,W.H.(1992).Special and General Knowledge and Organize Structure.In L.Werin and H.Wijkander (Eds),Contract Economics (pp.251-274).Blackwell,Oxford.
132.Jehn,K.A.,Northcraf t,G.B.,& Neale.M.A.(1999).Why differences make a difference:A field study in diversity,conflict,and performance in workgroups.Administrative science quarterly,44(4):741-763.
133.Joreskog,K.G.& Sorbom,D.(1981).LISREL V:Analysis of Linear Structural Relationships by the Method of Maximum Likelihood,National Education Resources,Chicago,IL.
134.Joreskog,K.G.& Sorbom,D.(2006).LISREL 8.80 for Windows.Lincolnwood,IL:Scientific Software International,Inc.
135.Walker,J.(2001).Developing a Shared Leadership Model at the Unit.Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing Level,15(1),26-39.
136.Kaiser,H.F.(1974).An Index of Factorial Simplicity.Psychometrika,39,31-36.
137.Karambayya,R.(1990).Contexts for organizational citizenship behavior:Do high performing and satisfying units have better “citizens”.York University Working Paper,North York,Ontario,Canada.
138.Katz,D.,Maccoby,N.,& Morse,N.(1950).Productivity,supervision,and morale in an office situation.Ann Arbor,MI:Institute for Social Research.
139.Katzenbach,J.R.,& Smith,D.K.(1993).The discipline of teams.Harvard Business Review,71:111-120.
140.Kazdin,A.E.(1975).Behavior modification in applied settings.Homewood,IL:Dorsey Press.
141.Kettle,D.F.(1993).Sharing power:public government and private markets.Washington,D.C.:The Brookings Institution.
142.Kerr,S.,& Jermier,J.(1978).Substitutes for leadership:Their meaning and measurement.Orgnizational Behavior and Human Performance,22,374-403.
143.Kirmeyer,S.L.& Shirom,A.(1986).Perceived Job Autonomy in the Manufacturing Sector:Effects of Unions,Gender,and Substantive Complexity.Academy of Management Journal,29(4):832-840.
144.Kleine,K.J.,Dansereau,F.& Hall,R.J.(1994).Levels issues in theory development,data collection and analysis.Academy of Management Review,19,195-229.
145.Klenke,K.(1997).Leadership dispersion as a function of performance in information systems teams.The Journal of High Technology Management Research,8,149-169.
146.Klimoski,R.& Mohammed,S.(1994).Team mental model:construct of metaphor? Journal of Management,20(2),403-437.
147.Kline,R.B.(1998).Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling.NY:Guilford Press.
148.Knight,D.,Pearce,C.L.,Smith,K.G.,Olian,J.D.,Sims,H.P.,Smith,K.A.,& Patrick,F.(1999).Top management team diversity,group process,and strategic consensus.Strategic Management Journal,20,445-465.
149.Kozlowski,S.W.J.,Gully,S.M.,Salas,E.,&Cannon-Bowers,J.A.(1996).Team leadership and development:Theory,principles,and guidelines for training leaders and teams.Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams(Vol.3,pp.253-291).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
150.Larwood,L.,Wright,T.A.,Desrochers,S.& Dahir,V.1998.Extending Latent Role and Psychological Contract Theories to Predict Intent to Turnover and Politics in Business Organizations.Group & Organizaion Management,23(2):100-123.
151.Lechner,A.(2000).New knowledge creation dynamics in multidisciplinary teams:In search of innovation practices.The State University of New Jersey,Newark,2000.
152.Lipman-Blumen,J.(1996).The connective edge:Leading in an interdependent world.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
153.Lim,B.,& Klein,K.J.(2006).Team mental models and team performance:A field study of the effects of team mental model similarity and accuracy.Journal of Organizational Behaviour,27,403-418.
154.Lindell,M.K.& Brandt,C.J.(2000).Climate quality and climate consensus as mediators of the relationship between organizational antecedents and outcomes.Journal of Applied Psychology,85,331-348.
155.Locke,E.A.(1976).The nature and causes of job satisfaction.In M.D.Dunnette(Ed.),Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp.1297-1349).New York:John Wiley & Sons.
156.Locke,E.A.(2000).The prime movers:Traits of the great wealth creators.New York:AMACOM.
157.Locke,E.A.(2003).Leadership:Starting at the top.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.271-284).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
158.Locke,E.A.,Alavi,M.,& Wagner,J.(1997).Participation in decision-making:An information exchange perspective.Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management,15,293-331.
159.Locke,E.A.,& Associates(1991).The essence of leadership.New York.-Lexington Books.
160. Locke,E.A.,Tirnauer,D.,Roberson,Q.,Goldman,B.,Latham,M.,& Weldon,E.(2001).The importance of the individual in an age of groupism.In M.Turner (Ed.),Groups at work:Theory and research.Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
161.Luke,J.S.(1998).Catalytic leadership:Strategies for an interconnected world.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
162.Lundin,S.C.,& Lancaster,L.C.(1990).Beyond leadership:The importance of followership.The Futurist,19-22.
163.Luthans,F.,& Kreitner,R.(1985).Organizational behavior modification and beyond.Glenview,IL:Scott,Foresman.
164.MacKenzie,S.B.,Podsakoff,P.M.,& Paine,J.E.(1998).Effects of organizational citizenship behavior and productivity on evaluations of performance at different hierarchical levels in sales organizations.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,27,396-410.
165.Mahoney,M.J.,& Arnkoff,D.B.(1978).Cognitive and self-control therapies.In S.L.Garfield & A.E.Borgin (Eds.),Handbook of psychotherapy and therapy change (pp.689-722).New York:Wiley.
166.Manz,C.C.,& Angle,H.(1986).Can group self-management mean a loss of Personal control:Triangulating a paradox.Group and Organization Studies,11,309-334.
167.Manz,C.C.,Keating,D.,& Donnellon,A.(1990).Preparing for organizational changes in employee self-management:The managerial transition.Organizational Dynamics,19,15-26.
168.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.Jr.(1980).Self-management as a substitute for leadership:A social learning perspective.Academy of Management Review,5,361-367.
169.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.Jr.(1987).Leading workers to lead themselves:The external leadership of self-managing work teams.Administrative Science Quarterly,32,106-128
170.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1989).Superleadership:Leading others to lead themselves.New York,NY:Prentice Hall.
171.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1991).SuperLeadership:Beyond the myth of heroic leadership.Organizational Dynamics,19,18-35.
172.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1993).Business without bosses.New York:Wiley.
173.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(2001).The new superleadership:Leading others to lead themselves.San Francisco,CA:Berret-Koehler.
174.Marsden,P.V.,& Friedkin,N.E.(1994).Network studies of social influence.In S.Wasserman & J.Galaskiewicz(Eds.),Advances in social network analysis (pp.3-25).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
175.Marsh,H.W.,& Hau,K.T.(1999).Confirmatory Factor Analysis:Strategies for Small Sample Sizes.In R.H.Hoyle(Ed.),Statistical Strategies for Small Sample Size,Thousand Oaks.CA:Sage,251-306.
176.Mathieu,J.E.,Heffner,T.S.,Goodwin,G.F.,Salas,E.,& Cannon-Bowers,J.A.(2000).The influence of shared mental models on team process and performance.Journal of Applied Psychology,85(2):273-283.
177.Mayo,E.(1933).The human problems of an industrial civilization.New York:Macmillan.
178.Mayo,M.,Meindel,J.R.,& Pastor,J.C.(2003).Shared Leadership in work teams:A social network approach.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.193-214).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
179.McClure,R.M.(1988).The Evolution of Shared Leadership.Educational Leadership,46(3),60-62.
180.McGrath,E.(1984).Groups interaction and performance.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.
181.McGregor,D.(1960).The human side of enterprise.New York:McGraw Hill.
182.Mehra,A..Smith,B.,Dixon,A.,& Robertson,B.(2006).Distributed leadership in teams:The network of leadership perceptions and team performance.Leadership Quarterly,17:232-245.
183.Meichenbaum,D.(1977).Cognitive-behavior modification:An integrative approach.New York:Plenum Press.
184.Meyer,J.P.,& Allen,J.N.(1984).“Testing the side-bet” theory of organizational commitment:Some methodological considerations.Journal of Applied Psychology,69:372-378.
185.Meyer,J.P.,& Allen,J.N.(1990).A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment.Human Resource Management Review,1,61-98.
186.Miller,H.E.,Katerberg,R.,&Hulin.(1979).Evaluation of the Mo-bley and Hollingsworth model and employee turnover.Journal of Applied Psychology,64(5),509-517.
187.Mintz,E.(1963).Special value of co-therapists in group psychotherapy.International Journal of Group Psychotherapy,13,127-132.
188.Mintzberg,H.(2006).The leadership debate with Henry Mintzberg:Community-ship is the answer.Financial Times,October 23rd,2006.
189.Mobley,W.H.(1982).Employee Turnover:Causes,Consequences,and Contral,Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
190.Mohrman,S.A.,Cohen,S.G.,&Mohrman,A.M.(1995).Designing team-Based organizations:New forms for knowledge work.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
191.Mohammed S.& Dumville B.C.(2001).Team mental models in a team knowledge framework:expanding theory and measurement across disciplinary boundaries.Journal of Organizational Behavior 22:89-106.
192.Moreland,R.L.(1999).Transactive memory:Learning who knows what in work groups and organizations.In L.Thompson,D.Messick,& J.Levine(Eds.),Sharing knowledge in organizations(pp.3-31).Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
193.Moorman,R.H.(1993).The influence of cognitive and affective based job satisfaction measures on the relationship between satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior,Human Relations,46(6),759-776.
194.Murnighan,J.K.(1991).The dynamics of bargaining games.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
195.Nakamura,R.T.(1980).Beyond purism and professional ism:Styles of convention delegate followership.American Journal of Political Science,24(2),207-232.
196.Nishigaki,S.,Vavrin,J.,Kano,N.,Haga,T.,Kunz,J.,& Law,K.(1994).Humanware,human error,and hiyari-hat:A template of unsafe symptoms.Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,120(2),421-432.
197.Nonaka,I.(1994).A Dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation.Organization Science,5(1),14-37.
198.Nonaka,I.,& Konno,N.(1998).TheConceptof “Ba”:Building a Foundation for Knowledge Creation.California Management Review,40(3),40-54.
199.Organ,D.W.(1988).Organizational Citizenship Behavior:The Good Soldier Syndrome. Lexington,MA:D.C.Heath.
200.O'Tools,J.,Galbraith,J.& Lawler Ⅲ,E.E.(2003).The promise and pitfalls of Shared Leadership:When two (or more) heads are better than one.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.250-268).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
201.Pearce,C.L.(1997).The determinants of change management team effectiveness:a longitudinal investigation.Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Maryland
202.Pearce,C.L.,& Conger,J.A.,(2003).All those years ago:The historical underpinnings of Shared Leadership.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership(pp.1-18).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
203.Pearce,C.L.& Conger,J.A.(2003).Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
204.Pearce,C.L.& Manz,C.C.(2005).The New Silver Bullets of Leadership:The Importance of Self-and Shared Leadership in Knowledge Work.Organizational Dynamics,34(2),130-140.
205.Pearce,C.L.,Perry,M.L.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(2001).Shared leadership:Relationship management to improve nonprofit organization effectiveness.In T.D.Conners(Ed.),The Nonprofit Handbook:Management(pp.624-641).New York,NY:John Wiley & Sons,Inc.
206.Pearce,C.L.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(2002).Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams:An examination of aversive,directive,transactional,transformational,and empowering leader behaviors.Group Dynamics:Theory,Research,and Practice,6(2),172-197.
207.Pearce,C.L.,Yoo,Y.,&Alavi,M.(2004).Leadership,social work,and virtual teams:the relative influence of vertical vs.shared leadership in the nonprofit sector.In R.E.Riggio,& S.Smith-0rr(Eds.),Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations (pp.180-203).San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.Pettigrew,A.M.,Ferlie.
208.Perry,M.L.,Pearce,C.L.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1999).Empowered selling teams:How shared leadship can contribute to selling team outcomes.Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management,19,33-52.
209.Pinchot,G.(1996).Creating organizations with many leaders.In F.Hesselbein,M.Goldsmith,& R.Beckhard(Eds.),The leader of the future:new visions,strategies,and practices for the next era(pp.25-39).San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
210.Pinder.C.C.(1984).Work motivation:Theory,issues and applications.Glenview,IL:Scott,Foreman and Company.
211.Pinder,C.C.(1998).Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior.Prentice-Hall,New Jersey:Englewood Cliffs.
212.Polanyi,M.(1967).The Tacit Dimension of Knowledge[M].Anchor Books,Garden City.
213.Podsakoff,P.M.,MacKenzie,S.B.(1994).Organizational Citizenship Behaviors and sales unit effectiveness.Journal of Marketing Research,31(3),351-363.
214.Podsakoff,P.M.,MacKenzie,S.B.,Paine,J.B.,& Bachrach,D.G.(2000).Organizational Citizenship Behaviors:A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions Forfuture Research.Journal of Management,26,pp:513-563.
215.Porter-O'Grady,T.,& Wilson,C.K.(1995).The leadership revolution in health care:Altering systems,changing behaviors.Gaithersburg,MD:Aspen Publishers,Inc.
216.Porter-O'Grady,T.,Hawkins,M.A.,& Parker,M.L.(1997).Whole-systems shared governance.Gaithersburg,MD:Aspen Publishers,Inc.
217.Porter,L.W.,Steers,R..Mowday,R..Boulean,P.(1974).Organizational commitment,job Satisfaction and turnover among psychiatric technicians.Journal of Applied Psychology,59(3):603-609.
218.Prohalad,C.K.,& Hamel.G.(1990).The Core Competence of the Corporation.Harvard Business Review,68(3),79-92.
219.Quinn,R.E.(1988).Beyond rational management:Mastering the paradoxes and competing demands of high performance.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
220.Rentsch,J.R.,& Hall,R.J.(1994).Members of great teams think alike:A model of the effectiveness and schema similarity among team members.Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams,1,233-261.
221.Resnick,L.B.(1991).Shared Cognition:Thinking as Social Practice.In L.B.Resnick,J.M.Levine,& S.D.Teasley(Eds.),Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition(pp.624-641).American Psychological Association,Washington,D.C.
222.Rittner,B.,& Hammons,K.(1992).Telephone group work with people with end stage AIDS.Social Work With Groups,15(4),59-72.
223.Rousseau,D.M.(1985).Issues of level in organizational research:Multi-level and cross-level perspectives.In L.L.Cummings & B.M.Staw(Eds.).Research in Organizational Behavior(pp.1-37).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
224.Saavedra,R.,Barley,P.C.,& Van Dyne,L.(1993).Complex interdependence in task performing groups.Journal of Applied Psychology,78,61-72.
225.Seers,A.(1996).Better leadership through chemistry:toward a model of emergent shared team leadership,Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams,3,145-72.
226.Seers,A..Keller,T.,& Wilkinson,J.M.(2003).Can team members share leadership?Foundations in research and theory.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp.77-102).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
227.Seibert,S.E.,& Goltz,S.M.(2001).Comparison of allocations by individuals and interacting groups in an escalation of commitment situation! Journal of Applied Social Psychology,31,134-156.
228.Settoon,R.P.,Bennett,N.,& Liden,R.C.(1996).Social exchange in organizations:Perceived organizational support,leader-member exchange,and employee reciprocity.Journal of Applied Psychology,81:219-227.
229.Shamir,B.& Lapidot,Y.(2003).Shared Leadership in the management of group boundaries:A study of expulsions from officers' training courses.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp.235-249).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
230.Shaw,M.E.(1981).Group Dynamics:The Psychology of Small Group Behavior(3rd ed.),McGraw-Hill,New York.
231.Shea,G.P.,& Guzzo,R.A.(1987).Groups as human resources.Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management,5,323-356.
232.Siebert,S.E.,Sparrowe,R.T.,& Liden,R.C.(2003).A group exchange structure approach to leadership in groups.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership(pp.173-192).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
233.Siggelkow,N.& Levinthal,D.A.(2003).Temporarily Divide to Conquer:Centralized,Decentralized,and Reintegrated Organizational Approaches to Exploration and Adaptation.Organization Science,14(6),650-669.
234.Sims,H.P.,Jr.,& Manz,C.C.(1996).Company of heroes:Unleashing the power of self-leadership.New York:Wiley.
235.Sims,H.P.,Jr.,Szilagyi,& Keller,R.T.(1976).The Measurement of Job Characteristics,Academy of Management Journal,19,159-212.
236.Sivasubramaniam,N.,Murry,W.D.,Avolio,B.J.,& Jung,D.I.(2002).A longitudinal model of the effects of team leadership and group potency on group performance.Group & Organization Management,27:66-96.
237.Smith,P.C.,Kendall,L.,& Hulin,C.L.(1969).The measurement of satisfaction work and retirement.Chicago:Rand McNally.
238.Smith,C.A.,Organ,D.W.,& Near,J.P.(1983).Organizational citizenship behavior:Its nature and antecedents,Journal of Applied Psychology,68,653-663.
239.Snijders,T.A.B.&Bosker,R.J.(1999).Multilevel Analysis:An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel modelling,Sage,New York.
240.Solomon,A.,Loeffer,F.J.,& Frank,G.H.(1953).An analysis of co-therapist interaction in group psychotherapy.International Journal of Group Psychotherapy,3,171-180.
241.Sparrowe,R.T.,& Liden,R.C.(1997).Process and structure in leader-member exchange.Academy of Management Review,22,522-552.
242.Sparrowe,R.T.,Liden,R.C.,Wayne,S.J.,& Kraimer,M.L.(2001).Social networks and the performance of individuals and groups.Academy of Management Journal,44,316-325.
243.Spector,P.E.(1986).Perceived control by employees:A meta-analysis of studies concerning autonomy and participation at work.Human Relations,39,1005-1016.
244.Spreitzer,G.M.(1995).Psychological empowerment in the workplace Dimensions,measurement,and validation.Academy of Management Journal,38(5),1442-1465.
245.Spillance,J.P.(2006).Distributed leadership.San Francisco:John Wiley & Sons.
246.Spooner,S.H.,Keenan,R.,& Card,M.(1997).Determining if shared leadership is being practiced:Evaluation methodology.Nursing Administration Quarterly,22,47-57.
247.Steers R.M.(1977).Antecedents and outcome of organizational commitment.Administrative Science Quarterly,22,4-56.
248.Steiger,J.H.,& Lind,J.M.(1980).Statistically based tests for the number of common factors.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Psychometric Society,Iowa City,IA.
249.Stein,R.T.,& Heller,T.(1979).An empirical analysis of the correlations between leadership status and participation rates reported in the literature.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,37,1993-2002.
250.Steiner,I.D.(1972).Group process and productivity.New-York:Academic Press.
251.Stewart,G.L.,& Manz,C.C.(1995).Leadership for self-managing work teams:a typology and integrative model.Human Relations,7,747-68.
252.Sugawara,H.M.& MacCallum,R.C.(1993).Effect of Estimation Method on Incremental Fit Indexes for Covariance Structure Models.Applied Psychological Measurement,17,365-77.
253.Swailes,S.(2002).Organisational commitment:a critique of the construct and measures.International Journal of Management Reviews,4(2),155-178.
254.Thibaut,J.,& Kelley,H.H.(1959).The social psychology of groups.New York:Wiley.
255.Thompson,J.D.(1967).Organization in action.New York:Mcgraw Hill.
256.Thompson,D.& McNamara,J.(1997).Job satisfaction in educational organizations:A synthesis of research findings.Educational Administration Quarterly,33(1):1-31.
257.Thoreson,E.E.,&Mahoney,M.J.(1974).Behavioral self-control.New York:Holt,Rinehart & Winston.
258.Thorndike,E.L.(1911).Animal intelligence:Experimental studies.New York:Macmillan.
259.Tjosvold,D.,Law,K.S.,& Sun.H.(2006).Effectiveness of Chinese Teams:The Role of Conflict Types and Conflict Management Approaches.Management and Organization Review,2(2),231-252.
260.Turner,C.E.(1993,June).Test room studies in employee effectiveness.American Journal of Pubic Health,23,577-584.
261.Van de Ven,A.H.& Diane,L.F.(1980).Measuring and assessing organizations.NY:John Wiley and Sons.
262.Van Dyne.L,Graham,J.W.& Dienesch,R.M.(1994).Organizational citizenship behavior:Construct redefinition,measurement,and validation.Academy of Management Journal,37,765-802.
263.Vroom,V.H.(1964).Work and motivation.New York:Wiley.
264.Vroom,V.H.& Yetton,P.W.(1973).Leadership and Decision-making,University of Pittsburgh Press,USA.
265.Wageman,R.(1995).Interdependence and Group Effectiveness.Administrative Science Quarterly,40,145-180.
266.Wageman,R.(2001).Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams.In J.S.Osland,D.A.Kolb & I.M.Rubin (Eds.),The Organizational Behavior Reader (7th ed.,pp.231-249).Upper Saddle River,NJ:Prentice Hall.
267.Waldman,D.A.,Bass,B.M.,& Einstein,W.0.(1987).Leadership and outcomes of performance appraisal process.Journal of Occupational Psychology,60,177-186.
268.Weber,M.(1924/1946).The sociology of charismatic authority.In H.H.Mills & C.W.Mills (Eds.),From Max Weber:Essays in sociology.New York:Oxford University Press.
269.Wegner,D.M.(1987).Transactive memory-.A contemporary analysis of the group mind.In B.Mullen&G.R.Goethals(Eds.),Theories of group behavior(pp.185-208).New York:Springer-Verlag.
270.Weingast,D.(1980).Shared Leadership:The Damn Thing Works.Educational Leadership,37(6),502-505.
271.Winter,S.(1976).Development stages in the roles and concerns of group co-leaders.Small Group Behavior,7(3),349-362.
272.Witt,L.A.& Nye,L.G.(1992).Gender and the relationship between perceived fairness of pay or promotion and job satisfaction.Journal of Applied Psychology,77:910-917.
273.Wood,M.S.(2005).Determinants of shared leadership in management teams.International Journal of Leadership Studies,1(1),64-85.
274.Wright,B.M.& Barker,J.R.(2000).Assessing concertive control in the team environment. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology 73,345-361.
275.Yammarino,F.J.,& Bass,B.M.(1990).Long-term forecasting of transformational leadership and its effects among naval officers.In K.E.Clark& M.B.Clark(Eds.),Measures of leadership(pp.151-170).West Orange,NJ:Leadership Library of America.
276.Yang,O.,& Shao,Y.E.(1996).Shared leadership in self-managed teams:A competing values approach.Total Quality Management,7(5),521-534.
277.Yeatts,D.E.,& Hyten,C.(1998).High-Performing Self-Managed Work Teams:A Comparison of Theory to Practice.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage Publishing.
278.Yeatts,D.E.,Hyten,C.,& Barnes,D.(1998).What are the key factors for self-managed team success? The Journal for Quality and Participation,19,68-80.
279.Yukl,G.A.(1998).Leadership in organizations(4th Ed.).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
280.Yukl,G.A.(2001).Leadership in organizations(5th Ed.).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
281.Zaccaro,S.J.,Ritman,A.L.,& Marks,M.A.(2001).Team leadership.Leadership Quarterly,12,451-483.
2.陈晓萍,徐淑英,樊景立(2008).组织与管理研究的实证方法[M].北京:北京大学出版社.
3.侯杰泰,温忠麟,成子娟(2004).结构方程模型及其应用[M].北京:教育科学出版社.
4.黄芳铭(2005).结构方程模式:理论与应用[M].北京:中国税务出版社.
5.凌文辁,方俐洛(2003).心理与行为测量[M].北京:机械工业出版社.
6.邱皓政(2004).结构方程模式:LISREL的理论、技术与应用[M].台北:双叶书廊有限公司.
7.邱皓政(2009).结构方程模型的原理与应用[M].北京:中国轻工业出版社.
8.温福星(2009).阶层线性模型的原理与应用[M].北京:中国轻工业出版社.
9.吴明隆(2003).SPSS统计应用实务[M].北京:科学出版社.
10.薛薇(2004).SPSS统计分析及方法应用[M].北京:电子工业出版社.
11.张雷,雷雳,郭伯良(2003).多层线性模型应用[M].北京:教育科学出版社.
12.周子敬(2006).结构方程模式:精通LISREL[M].台北:全华科技图书有限公司.
1.Abelson,M.A.(1986).Examination of avoidable and unavoidable turnover.Journal of Applied Psychology,72(3),382-386.
2.Adams,J.S.(1963).Wage inequities,productivity and work quality.Industrial Relationship,3,9-16.
3.Aldag,R.J.,& Fuller,S.R.(1993).Beyond Fiasco:A Reappraisal of the Groupthink Phenomenon and a New Model of Groupthink Decision Processes.Psychological Bulletin,113(3),533-552.
4.Alderfer,C.P.(1987).An intergroup perspective on group dynamics.In J.W.Lorsch(Ed.),Handbook of organizational behavior(pp.190-222).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Ball.
5.Akaike,H.(1987).Factor analysis and AIC.Psychometrika,52(3),317-332.
6.Raudenbush,S.W.,& Bryk,A.S.(2002).Bierarchical linear models(2nd Ed.).Newbury Park,CA:Sage Publications,Inc.
7.Arvey,R.D.,& Ivancevitch,J.M.(1980).Punishment in organizations:A review,propositions,and research suggestions.Academy of Management Review,5(1),123-132.
8.Aryee,S.,Budhwar,P.,& Chen,Z.(2002).Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes:Test of a social exchange model.Journal of Organiaitional Behavior.23,267-285.
9.Avila,R.A.,Fern,E.F.,& Mann,O.K.(1988).Unraveling criteria for assessing the performance of salespeople:A causal analysis.Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management,9,45-54.
10.Avolio,B.J.,Bass,B.M.,&Jung,D.I.(1999).Re-examinating the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire.Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,72,441-462.
11.Avolio,B.J.,Jung,D.,Murry,W.,& Sivasubramaniam,N.(1996).Building highly developed teams:Focusing on shared leadership process,efficacy,trust,and performance.In M.M.Beyerlein,D.A.Johnson,& S.T.Beyerlein(Eds.):Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams(pp.173-209).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
12.Avolio,B.J.,Sivasubramaniam,N.,Murry,W.D.,Jung,D.,&Garger,J.W.(2003).Assessing Shared Leadership:Development and preliminary validation of a Team Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.143-172).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
13.Avolio,B.J.,&Bass,B.M.(1988).Transformational leadership,charisma,and beyond.In J.G.Hunt,B.R.Baliga,H.P.Dachler,& C.A.Schreisheim(Eds.),Emerging leadership vistas(pp.29-50).Lexington,MA:Lexington.
14.Bagozzi,R.P.,& Yi,Y.(1998).On the Evaluation of Structural Equation Models.Journal of Academy Marketing Science,16,74-94.
15.Balkundi,P.,& Kilduff.M.(2005).The ties that lead:A social network approach to leadership.Leadership Quarterly,16(6),941-961.
16.Bandura,A.(1986).Social foundational of thought and action:Asocial-cognitive theory.Englewood Cliff;,NJ:Prentice Hall.
17.Barker,J.R.(1993).Tightening the iron cage:Concertive control in self-managing teams.Administrative Science Quarterly,38,408-438.
18.Barney,J.(1991).Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage.Journal of Management,17,99-120.
19.Baron,R.M.,& Kenny,D.A.(1986).The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research:Conceptual strategic,and statistical considerations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,51(6):1173-1182.
20.Barry,D.(1991).Managing the Bossless Team:Lessons in Distributed Leadership.Organizational Dynamics,20(1),31-47.
21.Bartol,K.M.& Martin,D.C.(1986).Women and Men in Task Groups.In R.D.Ashmore & F.K.Del Boca(Eds.),The Social Psychology of Female-Male Relations (pp.259-310).New York: Academic Press.
22.Bass,B.M.(1985).Leadership and performance beyond expectations.New York:Free Press;London:Collier Macmillan.
23.Bass,B.M.(1990):Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership:theory,research,and managerial applications.New York:Free Press;London:Collier Macmillan.
24.Bass,B.M.(1998).Transformational leadership:Industrial,military,and educational impact.Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.
25.Bass,B.M.,& Avolio,B.J.(1990).Transformational Leadership Development:Manual for Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire,Palo Alto,California:Consulting Psychologists Press.
26.Bass,B.M.,& Avolio,B.J.(1993).Transformational leadership:A response to critiques. In J.G.Hunt,B.R.Baliga,H.P.Dachler,& C.A.Schriesheim(Eds.),Emerging leadership vistas(pp.29-40).Lexington,MA:Lexington.
27.Bass,B.M.,Avolio,B.J.,& Goodheim,L.(1987).Biography and the assessment of transformational leadership at the world-class level.Journal of Management,13,7-19.
28.Benne,K.,& Sheats,P.(1948).Functional roles of group members.Journal of Social Issues,4,41-49.
29.Bentler,P M.(1990).Comparative fit indexes in structural models.Psychological Bulletin,107(2),238-246.
30.Bentler,P.M.,& Bonett,D.G.(1980).Significance tests and goodness-of-fit in the analysis of covariance structures.Psychological Bulletin,88,588-600.
31.Berger,J.,Cohen,B.P.,& Zelditch,M.(1972).Status characteristics and social interaction.American Sociological Review,37,241-256.
32.Blau,P.M.(1964).Exchange and power in social life.New York:John Wiley & Sons.
33.Blau,J.R.,& Alba,R.D.(1982).Empowering nets of participation.Administrative Science Quarterly,27(3),363-379.
34.Bowers,D.J.& Seashore,S.E.(1966).Predicting Organizational Effectiveness with a Four Factors Theory of Leadership.Administrative Science Quarterly,11,238-263.
35.Bradford,D.L.,& Cohen,A.R.(1998).Power up:Transforming organization through shared leadership.New York:John Wiley & Sons.
36.Brown,M.H.& Hosking.D.M.(1986).Distributed Leadership and Skilled Performance as Successful Organization in Social Movements.Human Relations,39(1),65-79.
37.Browne,M.W.& Arminger,G.(1995).Specification and estimation of mean and covariance models,Plenum Press,New York.
38.Browne,M.W.,& Cudeck,R.(1993).Alternative ways of assessing model fit.In K.A.Bollen & J.S.Long(Eds.),Testing structural equation models(pp.136-162).Newbury Park.CA:Sage.
39.Brounstein,M.(2002).Managing teams for dummies.New York:Wiley Publications.
40.Brown.M.E.,& Gioia,D.A.(2002).Making things click:Distributive leadership in an online division of an offline organization.Leadership Quarterly,13(4),397-419.
41.Bryman,A.(1992).Charisma and leadership in organizations.London:Sage.
42.Bryson,J.M.,& Crosby,B.C.(1992).Leadership for the common good:Tackling public problems in a shared-power world.San Francisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.
43.Burke,C.S.,Fiore,S.M.,& Salas,E.(2003).The role of Shared Cognition in enabling Shared Leadership and team adaptability.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.103-122).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
44.Burns,J.M.(1978).Leadership.New York:Harper & Row.
45.Cammann,C.,Fichman,M.,Jenkins,D.,& Klesh,J.(1983).Assessing the attitudes and perceptions of organizational members.In S.E.Seashore,E.E.Lawler,P.H.Mirvis,& C.Cammann(Eds.),Assessing organizational change:A guide to methods,measures and practices(pp.71-138).New York:John Wiley & Sons.
46.Campbell,D.J.(1988).Task Complexity:A Review and Analysis.Academy of Management Review,13,40-52.
47.Campbell,J.M.,& Kinion.E.S.(1993).Teaching eadership/followership to RN-to-MSN students.Journal of Nursing Education.32(3):138-40.
48.Campion,M.A.,Medsker,G.J.,& Higgs,A.C.(1993).Relations between work group characteristics and effectiveness:Implications for designing effective work groups.Personnel Psychology,46,823-855.
49.Cannon-Bowers J.A,& Salas,E.(2001).Reflections on shared cognition.Journal of Organizational Behavior,22:195-202.
50.Cannon-Bowers J.A.,Salas E.,Converse,S.(1993).Shared mental models in expert team decision making.In Individual and Group Decision Making,Castellan N.J.(ed.).Lawrence Erlbaum Associates:Hillsdale,N.J.:221-246.
51.Carson,J.B.,Tesluk,P.E.,& Marrone,J.A.(2007).Shared Leadership in Teams:An Investigation of Antecedent Conditions and Performance.Academy of Management Journal,Vol.50,No.5,1217-1234.
52.Chan(1998).Functional relations among constructs in the same content domain at different levels of analysis:A typology of composition models.Journal of Applied Psychology,83,234-246.
53.Chen,G.,& Bliese,P.D.(2002).The role of different levels of leadership in predicting self-efficacy and collective efficacy:Evidence for discontinuity.Journal of Applied Psychology,87(3),546-556.
54.Cohen,J.(1988).Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd Ed.).Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
55.Cohen,S.G.& Bailey,D.R.(1997).What makes teams work:group effectiveness research from the shop floor to the executive suite.Journal of Management,23(3):239-290
56.Conger,J.A.,& Kanungo,R.N.(1988).The Empowerment Process:Integrating theory and practice.Academy of Management Review.13(3),471-482.
57.Conger,J.A.,Kanungo,R.N.,& Menon,S.T.(2000).Charismatic leadership and follower effects.Journal of Organizational Behavior,21:747-767.
58.Cooke,N.J.,Salas,E.,Cannon-Bowers,J.A.& Stout,R.(2000).Measuring team knowledge.Human Factors 42:151-173.
59.Cooper,A.F.,Higgott,R.A.,& Nossal,K.R.(1991).Bound to follow? Leadership and followership in the gulf conflict.Political Science Quarterly,106(3),391-410.
60.Cox,J.F.(1994).The effects of SuperLeadership training on leader behavior,subordinate self-leader behavior,and subordinate citizenship behacior.Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Maryland,College Park.
61.Cox,J.F.,Pearce,C.L.,& Perry,M.L.(2003).Toward a model of Shared Leadership and distributed influence in the innovation process:How Shared Leadership can enhance New Product Development Team dynamics and effectiveness.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.48-76).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
62.Cox,J.F.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1996).Leadership and team citizenship behavior:A model and measures.In M.Beyerlein,D.Johnson,& S.Beyerleinhip (Vol.3,pp.1-41).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
63.Cropanzano,R.,James,K.,& Konovsky,M.A.(1993).Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes and job performance.Journal of Organizational Behavior,14,595-606.
64.Cropanzano,R.,Howes,J.C.,Grandey,A.A.,& Toth,P.(1997).The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors,attitudes,and stress.Journal of Organizational Behavior,18,159-180.
65.Crouch,A.& Yetton,P.(1998).The management team:An equilibrium model of manager and subordinate performance and behavior.In J.G.Hunt,B.R.Baliga,H.P.Dachler,& C.A.Schriesheim(Eds.),Emerging leadership vistas:107-127.Lexington.MA:Lexington Nooks.
66.Dachler,H.P.(1984).Commentary on refocusing leadership from a social systems perspective.In J.Hunt,D.Hosking,C.Schriesheim & R.Stewart(eds),Leaders and managers:international perspectives on managerial behavior and leadership(pp.100-108),Pergamon Press,New York.
67.Danching,Ruan(1993).Social Networks in Urban China,Doctoral Dissertation,Columbia University.
68.Dansereau,F.,Graen,G.,& Haga,W.J.(1975).A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations.Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,13,46-78.
69.Dansereau,F.,Yammarino,F.J.,& Markham,S.E.(1995).Leadership:The multiple level approaches.Leadership Quarterly,6(3),251-263.
70.Deci,E.L.,Connell,J.P.& Ryan,R.M.(1989).The support of autonomy and the control of behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,53(6):1024-1037.
71.Denhardt,R.B.(1993).The pursuit of significance:Strategies for management in public organization.Wadsworth.
72.Denhardt,J.V.,& Denhardt,R.B.(2003).The new public service:Serving not steering.Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe.
73.DiMaggio,P.J.& Powell,W.(1983).The Iron Cage Revisited:Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.American Sociological Review,48,147-60.
74.Dixon,M.A.,& Cunningham,G.(2006).Data aggregation in multilevel analysis:A Review of conceptual and statistical issues.Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science,10,85-107.
75.Dubin,R.,Champoux,J.E.& Porter,L.W.(1975).Central Life Interests and Organizational Commitment of Workers.Administrative Science Quarterly,20,411-421.
76.Dunphy,D.& Bryant,B.(1996).Teams:Panaceas or prescriptions for improved performance?Human Relations,49,677-699.
77.Eisenberger,R.,Huntington,R.,Hutchison,S.,& Sowa,D.(1986).Perceived organizational support.Journal of Applied Psychology,71:500-507.
78.Ensley,M.D.,& Pearce,C.L.(2001).Shared cognition in top management teams:implications for new venture performance.Journal of Organizational Behavior,22(2),pp.145-160.
79.Ensley,M.D.,Pearson,A.W.& Pearce,C.L.(2003).Shared leadership,top management team process and new venture performance:A theoretical model and research agenda.Human Resource Management Review,13(2),329-346.
80.Ensley,M.D.,Hmieleski,K.M.,& Pearce,C.L.(2006).The importance of vertical and shared leadership within new venture top management teams:Implications for the performance of startups.Leadership Quarterly,17(3),pp.217-231.
81.Erez.M.,& Arad,R.(1986).Participative goal-setting:Social,motivational,and cognitive factors.Journal of Applied Psychology,71,591-597.
82.Farh,J.L.,Earley,P.C.,& Lin,S.C.(1997).Impetus for Extraordinary Action:A Cultural Analysis of Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Chinese Society.Administrative Science Quarterly,42,421-444.
83.Festinger,L.(1954).A theory of social comparison processes.Human Relations,7,117-140.
84.Fielding,R.T.(1999).Shared leadership in the Apache Project.Communications of ACM,42,42-45.
85.Fleishman,E.A.(1953).The description of supervisory behavior.Journal of Applied Psychology,37,1-6.
86.Fletcher,J.K.& Kaufer,K.(2003).Shared Leadership:Paradoxes and possibility.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership(pp.19-47).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
87.Follett.M.P.(1924).Creative experience.New York:Longman Green.
88.Follett.M.P.(1941).Dynamic Administration:The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett.Metcalf,H.C.,& Urwick,L.(Eds.).NY:Harper & Bros.
89.French,J.R.P.,& Raven,B.H.(1959).The bases of social power.In D.Cartwright and A.Zander(Eds.),Group dynamics.New York:Harper & Row.
90.Friedkin,N.E.(1998).A structural theory of social influence.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press.
91.Friedkin,N.E.(1999).Choice shift and group polarization.American Sociological Review,64,856-875.
92.Ganzach,Y.(1998).Intelligence and Job Satisfaction.Academy of Management Journal,41(5).526-539.
93.George,J.(1990).Personality,affect,and behavior in groups.Journal of Applied Psychology,75,107-116.
94.George,V.,Burke,L.J.,Rodgers,B.,Duthie,N.,Hoffmann,M.L.,Koceja,V.,et al.(2002).Developing staff nurse shared leadership behavior in professional nursing practice.Nursing Administration Quarterly,26,44-60.
95.Gibb,C.A.(1954).Leadership.In G.Lindzey(Ed.).Handbook of social psychology (Vol.2). Cambridge,MA:Addison Wesley.
96.Gladstein,D.L.(1984).Groups in Context:A model of Task Group Effectiveness.Administrative Science Quarterly,29,499-517.
97.Graen,G.B.(1976).Role making processes within complex organizations.In M.D.Dunnette (Ed.),Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp.1201-1245).Chicago:Rand McNally.
98.Graen,G.B.,& Scandura,T.A.(1987).Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing.In L L.Cummings & B.M.Staw(Eds.),Research in organizational behavior(pp.175-208).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
99.Graham,J.W.(1989).Organizational citizenship behavior:Construct redefinition,operationalization,and validation.Unpublished working paper,Loyola University of Chicago,Chicago,IL.
100.Greene,L.R..Morrison,T.L.,& Tischler,N.G.(1981).Gender and authority:Effects oil perceptions of small group co-leaders.Small Group Behavior,12(4),401-413.
101.Gronn,P.(2002).Distributed leadership as a unit of analysis.Leadership Quarterly,13(4),423-451.
102.Gruneberg,M.M.(1979).Understanding job satisfaction.New York:Wiley.
103.Hackman.J.R.(1987).The design of work teams.In J.W.Lorsch(Ed.),Handdbook of organizational behavior(pp.315-342).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
104.Hackman,J.R.,& Walton,R.E.(1986).Leading groups in organizations.In P,S.Goodman & Associates(Eds.),Designing effective work groups(pp.72-119).San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
105.Hair,J.F.,Anderson,R.E.,Tatham,R.L.& Black,W.C.(1998).Multivariate data analysis (5th edition).Prentice Hall International:UK.
106.Hallinger,P.(2000).Systems Thinking Systems Changing:A Computer Simulation for Learning How to Make Schools Smart.In K.Leithwood and K.S.Louis (Eds.),Understanding Schools as Intelligent Systemspp(pp.141-162).New Youk:JAI Press.
107.Halpin,A.W.,& Winer,B.J.(1957).A factorial study of the leader behavior descriptions.In R.M.Stogdill & E.A.Coons(Eds.),Leader behavior:Its description and measurement (pp.39-51).Columbus:Ohio State University Bureau of Business Research.
108.Harrison,S.(1996).Practicing dietetics without a traditional dietetics department:Shared governance.Journal of the American Dietetic Association,96,447-555.
109.Hater,J.J.,& Bass,B.M.(1998).Superiors' evaluations and subordinates' perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership.Journal of Applied Psychology,73,695-702.
110.Hayek,F.A.(1945).The Use of Knowledge in Society.American Economic Review,35(4),519-530.
111.Heifetz,R.A.(1994).Leadership without easy answers.Cambridge,Massachusetts,and London,England:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
112.Hennan,D.A.,& Bennis,W.(1999).Co-leadership:The power of great partnerships.New York:Wiley.
113.Herzog.(1981).Communication between co-leaders:Fact or myth:A student's perspective.Social Work with Groups,3(4),19-29.
114.Hoegl,M.& Muethel,M.(2007).Shared Leadership in Dispersed Innovation Teams:Mutual Influence and Procative Followership.Academy of Management Proceedings,1-6.
115.Hoelter,J.W.(1983).The Analysis of Covariance Structures:Goodness-of-fit Indices.Sociological Methods and Research,11,325-344.
116.Hoffman,L.R.(1959).Homogeneity of member personality and its effect on group problem-solving.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,58,27-32.
117.Hollander,E.P.(1978).Leadership dynamics:A practical guide to effective relationships.New York:Free Press.
118.Homans,G.C.(1958).Social Behavior as Exchange.The American Journal of Sociology,63,597-606.
119.Hooker,C.& Csikszentmihalyi,M.(2003).Flow,creativity and Shared Leadership:Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.217-234).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
120.Houghton,J.D.,Neck,C.P.,& Manz,C.C.(2003).Self-leadership and superleadership:The heart and art of creating Shared Leadership in teams.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.123-140).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
121.House,R.J.(1971).A path goal theory of leader effectiveness.Administrative Science Quarterly,16,321-338.
122.House,R.J.(1977).A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership.In J.G.Hunt & L.L.Larson (Eds.),Leadership:The cutting edge(pp.189-207).Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press.
123.House,R.J.,& Mitchell,T.R.(1974).Path-goal theory of leadership.Journal of Contemporary Business,3,81-97.
124.House,R.,Rousseau,D.M.& Thomas-Hunt,M.(1995).The meso-paradigm:A framework for the integration of micro and macro organizational behavior.In L.L.Cummings,& B.M.Straw(Eds.),Research in Organizational behavior(pp.71-114).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
125.Hoy,W.K.&.Miskel,C.G.(1996).Educational Administration:Theory,Research,and Practice(5th,Ed.).New York:McGraw-Hill,Inc.
126.Igharia,M.,& Greenhaus,J.H.(1992).Determinants of MIS employees' turnover intentions:a structural equation model.Personnel Management,35(2),34-49.
127.Iverson,R.D.(1999).An event history analysis of employee turnover:the case of hospital employees in Australia.Human Resource Management Review,9(4):397-418.
128.Jackson,S.(2000).A Qualitative Evaluation of Shared Leadership barriers,Drivers,and Recommendations.Journal of Management in Medicine.14(3,4),166-178.
129.James,L.R.,Demaree,R.G.,& Wolf,G.(1993).r_(wg):An assessment of within-group interrater agreement.Journal of Applied Psychology,78(2),306-309.
130.Jehn,K.A.,Chadwick,C.,& Thatcher,S.(1997).To agree or not to agree:The effects of value congruence,member diversity and conflict on workgroup outcomes.International journal of conflict management,8:287-305.
131.Jensen,W.C.& Meckling,W.H.(1992).Special and General Knowledge and Organize Structure.In L.Werin and H.Wijkander (Eds),Contract Economics (pp.251-274).Blackwell,Oxford.
132.Jehn,K.A.,Northcraf t,G.B.,& Neale.M.A.(1999).Why differences make a difference:A field study in diversity,conflict,and performance in workgroups.Administrative science quarterly,44(4):741-763.
133.Joreskog,K.G.& Sorbom,D.(1981).LISREL V:Analysis of Linear Structural Relationships by the Method of Maximum Likelihood,National Education Resources,Chicago,IL.
134.Joreskog,K.G.& Sorbom,D.(2006).LISREL 8.80 for Windows.Lincolnwood,IL:Scientific Software International,Inc.
135.Walker,J.(2001).Developing a Shared Leadership Model at the Unit.Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing Level,15(1),26-39.
136.Kaiser,H.F.(1974).An Index of Factorial Simplicity.Psychometrika,39,31-36.
137.Karambayya,R.(1990).Contexts for organizational citizenship behavior:Do high performing and satisfying units have better “citizens”.York University Working Paper,North York,Ontario,Canada.
138.Katz,D.,Maccoby,N.,& Morse,N.(1950).Productivity,supervision,and morale in an office situation.Ann Arbor,MI:Institute for Social Research.
139.Katzenbach,J.R.,& Smith,D.K.(1993).The discipline of teams.Harvard Business Review,71:111-120.
140.Kazdin,A.E.(1975).Behavior modification in applied settings.Homewood,IL:Dorsey Press.
141.Kettle,D.F.(1993).Sharing power:public government and private markets.Washington,D.C.:The Brookings Institution.
142.Kerr,S.,& Jermier,J.(1978).Substitutes for leadership:Their meaning and measurement.Orgnizational Behavior and Human Performance,22,374-403.
143.Kirmeyer,S.L.& Shirom,A.(1986).Perceived Job Autonomy in the Manufacturing Sector:Effects of Unions,Gender,and Substantive Complexity.Academy of Management Journal,29(4):832-840.
144.Kleine,K.J.,Dansereau,F.& Hall,R.J.(1994).Levels issues in theory development,data collection and analysis.Academy of Management Review,19,195-229.
145.Klenke,K.(1997).Leadership dispersion as a function of performance in information systems teams.The Journal of High Technology Management Research,8,149-169.
146.Klimoski,R.& Mohammed,S.(1994).Team mental model:construct of metaphor? Journal of Management,20(2),403-437.
147.Kline,R.B.(1998).Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling.NY:Guilford Press.
148.Knight,D.,Pearce,C.L.,Smith,K.G.,Olian,J.D.,Sims,H.P.,Smith,K.A.,& Patrick,F.(1999).Top management team diversity,group process,and strategic consensus.Strategic Management Journal,20,445-465.
149.Kozlowski,S.W.J.,Gully,S.M.,Salas,E.,&Cannon-Bowers,J.A.(1996).Team leadership and development:Theory,principles,and guidelines for training leaders and teams.Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams(Vol.3,pp.253-291).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
150.Larwood,L.,Wright,T.A.,Desrochers,S.& Dahir,V.1998.Extending Latent Role and Psychological Contract Theories to Predict Intent to Turnover and Politics in Business Organizations.Group & Organizaion Management,23(2):100-123.
151.Lechner,A.(2000).New knowledge creation dynamics in multidisciplinary teams:In search of innovation practices.The State University of New Jersey,Newark,2000.
152.Lipman-Blumen,J.(1996).The connective edge:Leading in an interdependent world.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
153.Lim,B.,& Klein,K.J.(2006).Team mental models and team performance:A field study of the effects of team mental model similarity and accuracy.Journal of Organizational Behaviour,27,403-418.
154.Lindell,M.K.& Brandt,C.J.(2000).Climate quality and climate consensus as mediators of the relationship between organizational antecedents and outcomes.Journal of Applied Psychology,85,331-348.
155.Locke,E.A.(1976).The nature and causes of job satisfaction.In M.D.Dunnette(Ed.),Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp.1297-1349).New York:John Wiley & Sons.
156.Locke,E.A.(2000).The prime movers:Traits of the great wealth creators.New York:AMACOM.
157.Locke,E.A.(2003).Leadership:Starting at the top.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.271-284).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
158.Locke,E.A.,Alavi,M.,& Wagner,J.(1997).Participation in decision-making:An information exchange perspective.Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management,15,293-331.
159.Locke,E.A.,& Associates(1991).The essence of leadership.New York.-Lexington Books.
160. Locke,E.A.,Tirnauer,D.,Roberson,Q.,Goldman,B.,Latham,M.,& Weldon,E.(2001).The importance of the individual in an age of groupism.In M.Turner (Ed.),Groups at work:Theory and research.Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
161.Luke,J.S.(1998).Catalytic leadership:Strategies for an interconnected world.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
162.Lundin,S.C.,& Lancaster,L.C.(1990).Beyond leadership:The importance of followership.The Futurist,19-22.
163.Luthans,F.,& Kreitner,R.(1985).Organizational behavior modification and beyond.Glenview,IL:Scott,Foresman.
164.MacKenzie,S.B.,Podsakoff,P.M.,& Paine,J.E.(1998).Effects of organizational citizenship behavior and productivity on evaluations of performance at different hierarchical levels in sales organizations.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,27,396-410.
165.Mahoney,M.J.,& Arnkoff,D.B.(1978).Cognitive and self-control therapies.In S.L.Garfield & A.E.Borgin (Eds.),Handbook of psychotherapy and therapy change (pp.689-722).New York:Wiley.
166.Manz,C.C.,& Angle,H.(1986).Can group self-management mean a loss of Personal control:Triangulating a paradox.Group and Organization Studies,11,309-334.
167.Manz,C.C.,Keating,D.,& Donnellon,A.(1990).Preparing for organizational changes in employee self-management:The managerial transition.Organizational Dynamics,19,15-26.
168.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.Jr.(1980).Self-management as a substitute for leadership:A social learning perspective.Academy of Management Review,5,361-367.
169.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.Jr.(1987).Leading workers to lead themselves:The external leadership of self-managing work teams.Administrative Science Quarterly,32,106-128
170.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1989).Superleadership:Leading others to lead themselves.New York,NY:Prentice Hall.
171.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1991).SuperLeadership:Beyond the myth of heroic leadership.Organizational Dynamics,19,18-35.
172.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1993).Business without bosses.New York:Wiley.
173.Manz,C.C.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(2001).The new superleadership:Leading others to lead themselves.San Francisco,CA:Berret-Koehler.
174.Marsden,P.V.,& Friedkin,N.E.(1994).Network studies of social influence.In S.Wasserman & J.Galaskiewicz(Eds.),Advances in social network analysis (pp.3-25).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
175.Marsh,H.W.,& Hau,K.T.(1999).Confirmatory Factor Analysis:Strategies for Small Sample Sizes.In R.H.Hoyle(Ed.),Statistical Strategies for Small Sample Size,Thousand Oaks.CA:Sage,251-306.
176.Mathieu,J.E.,Heffner,T.S.,Goodwin,G.F.,Salas,E.,& Cannon-Bowers,J.A.(2000).The influence of shared mental models on team process and performance.Journal of Applied Psychology,85(2):273-283.
177.Mayo,E.(1933).The human problems of an industrial civilization.New York:Macmillan.
178.Mayo,M.,Meindel,J.R.,& Pastor,J.C.(2003).Shared Leadership in work teams:A social network approach.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership (pp.193-214).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
179.McClure,R.M.(1988).The Evolution of Shared Leadership.Educational Leadership,46(3),60-62.
180.McGrath,E.(1984).Groups interaction and performance.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.
181.McGregor,D.(1960).The human side of enterprise.New York:McGraw Hill.
182.Mehra,A..Smith,B.,Dixon,A.,& Robertson,B.(2006).Distributed leadership in teams:The network of leadership perceptions and team performance.Leadership Quarterly,17:232-245.
183.Meichenbaum,D.(1977).Cognitive-behavior modification:An integrative approach.New York:Plenum Press.
184.Meyer,J.P.,& Allen,J.N.(1984).“Testing the side-bet” theory of organizational commitment:Some methodological considerations.Journal of Applied Psychology,69:372-378.
185.Meyer,J.P.,& Allen,J.N.(1990).A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment.Human Resource Management Review,1,61-98.
186.Miller,H.E.,Katerberg,R.,&Hulin.(1979).Evaluation of the Mo-bley and Hollingsworth model and employee turnover.Journal of Applied Psychology,64(5),509-517.
187.Mintz,E.(1963).Special value of co-therapists in group psychotherapy.International Journal of Group Psychotherapy,13,127-132.
188.Mintzberg,H.(2006).The leadership debate with Henry Mintzberg:Community-ship is the answer.Financial Times,October 23rd,2006.
189.Mobley,W.H.(1982).Employee Turnover:Causes,Consequences,and Contral,Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
190.Mohrman,S.A.,Cohen,S.G.,&Mohrman,A.M.(1995).Designing team-Based organizations:New forms for knowledge work.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
191.Mohammed S.& Dumville B.C.(2001).Team mental models in a team knowledge framework:expanding theory and measurement across disciplinary boundaries.Journal of Organizational Behavior 22:89-106.
192.Moreland,R.L.(1999).Transactive memory:Learning who knows what in work groups and organizations.In L.Thompson,D.Messick,& J.Levine(Eds.),Sharing knowledge in organizations(pp.3-31).Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
193.Moorman,R.H.(1993).The influence of cognitive and affective based job satisfaction measures on the relationship between satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior,Human Relations,46(6),759-776.
194.Murnighan,J.K.(1991).The dynamics of bargaining games.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
195.Nakamura,R.T.(1980).Beyond purism and professional ism:Styles of convention delegate followership.American Journal of Political Science,24(2),207-232.
196.Nishigaki,S.,Vavrin,J.,Kano,N.,Haga,T.,Kunz,J.,& Law,K.(1994).Humanware,human error,and hiyari-hat:A template of unsafe symptoms.Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,120(2),421-432.
197.Nonaka,I.(1994).A Dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation.Organization Science,5(1),14-37.
198.Nonaka,I.,& Konno,N.(1998).TheConceptof “Ba”:Building a Foundation for Knowledge Creation.California Management Review,40(3),40-54.
199.Organ,D.W.(1988).Organizational Citizenship Behavior:The Good Soldier Syndrome. Lexington,MA:D.C.Heath.
200.O'Tools,J.,Galbraith,J.& Lawler Ⅲ,E.E.(2003).The promise and pitfalls of Shared Leadership:When two (or more) heads are better than one.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger (Eds.),Shared Leadership:Refraining the hows and whys of leadership(pp.250-268).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
201.Pearce,C.L.(1997).The determinants of change management team effectiveness:a longitudinal investigation.Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Maryland
202.Pearce,C.L.,& Conger,J.A.,(2003).All those years ago:The historical underpinnings of Shared Leadership.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership(pp.1-18).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
203.Pearce,C.L.& Conger,J.A.(2003).Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
204.Pearce,C.L.& Manz,C.C.(2005).The New Silver Bullets of Leadership:The Importance of Self-and Shared Leadership in Knowledge Work.Organizational Dynamics,34(2),130-140.
205.Pearce,C.L.,Perry,M.L.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(2001).Shared leadership:Relationship management to improve nonprofit organization effectiveness.In T.D.Conners(Ed.),The Nonprofit Handbook:Management(pp.624-641).New York,NY:John Wiley & Sons,Inc.
206.Pearce,C.L.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(2002).Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams:An examination of aversive,directive,transactional,transformational,and empowering leader behaviors.Group Dynamics:Theory,Research,and Practice,6(2),172-197.
207.Pearce,C.L.,Yoo,Y.,&Alavi,M.(2004).Leadership,social work,and virtual teams:the relative influence of vertical vs.shared leadership in the nonprofit sector.In R.E.Riggio,& S.Smith-0rr(Eds.),Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations (pp.180-203).San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.Pettigrew,A.M.,Ferlie.
208.Perry,M.L.,Pearce,C.L.,& Sims,H.P.,Jr.(1999).Empowered selling teams:How shared leadship can contribute to selling team outcomes.Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management,19,33-52.
209.Pinchot,G.(1996).Creating organizations with many leaders.In F.Hesselbein,M.Goldsmith,& R.Beckhard(Eds.),The leader of the future:new visions,strategies,and practices for the next era(pp.25-39).San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
210.Pinder.C.C.(1984).Work motivation:Theory,issues and applications.Glenview,IL:Scott,Foreman and Company.
211.Pinder,C.C.(1998).Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior.Prentice-Hall,New Jersey:Englewood Cliffs.
212.Polanyi,M.(1967).The Tacit Dimension of Knowledge[M].Anchor Books,Garden City.
213.Podsakoff,P.M.,MacKenzie,S.B.(1994).Organizational Citizenship Behaviors and sales unit effectiveness.Journal of Marketing Research,31(3),351-363.
214.Podsakoff,P.M.,MacKenzie,S.B.,Paine,J.B.,& Bachrach,D.G.(2000).Organizational Citizenship Behaviors:A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions Forfuture Research.Journal of Management,26,pp:513-563.
215.Porter-O'Grady,T.,& Wilson,C.K.(1995).The leadership revolution in health care:Altering systems,changing behaviors.Gaithersburg,MD:Aspen Publishers,Inc.
216.Porter-O'Grady,T.,Hawkins,M.A.,& Parker,M.L.(1997).Whole-systems shared governance.Gaithersburg,MD:Aspen Publishers,Inc.
217.Porter,L.W.,Steers,R..Mowday,R..Boulean,P.(1974).Organizational commitment,job Satisfaction and turnover among psychiatric technicians.Journal of Applied Psychology,59(3):603-609.
218.Prohalad,C.K.,& Hamel.G.(1990).The Core Competence of the Corporation.Harvard Business Review,68(3),79-92.
219.Quinn,R.E.(1988).Beyond rational management:Mastering the paradoxes and competing demands of high performance.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
220.Rentsch,J.R.,& Hall,R.J.(1994).Members of great teams think alike:A model of the effectiveness and schema similarity among team members.Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams,1,233-261.
221.Resnick,L.B.(1991).Shared Cognition:Thinking as Social Practice.In L.B.Resnick,J.M.Levine,& S.D.Teasley(Eds.),Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition(pp.624-641).American Psychological Association,Washington,D.C.
222.Rittner,B.,& Hammons,K.(1992).Telephone group work with people with end stage AIDS.Social Work With Groups,15(4),59-72.
223.Rousseau,D.M.(1985).Issues of level in organizational research:Multi-level and cross-level perspectives.In L.L.Cummings & B.M.Staw(Eds.).Research in Organizational Behavior(pp.1-37).Greenwich,CT:JAI Press.
224.Saavedra,R.,Barley,P.C.,& Van Dyne,L.(1993).Complex interdependence in task performing groups.Journal of Applied Psychology,78,61-72.
225.Seers,A.(1996).Better leadership through chemistry:toward a model of emergent shared team leadership,Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams,3,145-72.
226.Seers,A..Keller,T.,& Wilkinson,J.M.(2003).Can team members share leadership?Foundations in research and theory.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp.77-102).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
227.Seibert,S.E.,& Goltz,S.M.(2001).Comparison of allocations by individuals and interacting groups in an escalation of commitment situation! Journal of Applied Social Psychology,31,134-156.
228.Settoon,R.P.,Bennett,N.,& Liden,R.C.(1996).Social exchange in organizations:Perceived organizational support,leader-member exchange,and employee reciprocity.Journal of Applied Psychology,81:219-227.
229.Shamir,B.& Lapidot,Y.(2003).Shared Leadership in the management of group boundaries:A study of expulsions from officers' training courses.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp.235-249).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
230.Shaw,M.E.(1981).Group Dynamics:The Psychology of Small Group Behavior(3rd ed.),McGraw-Hill,New York.
231.Shea,G.P.,& Guzzo,R.A.(1987).Groups as human resources.Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management,5,323-356.
232.Siebert,S.E.,Sparrowe,R.T.,& Liden,R.C.(2003).A group exchange structure approach to leadership in groups.In C.L.Pearce,& J.A.Conger(Eds.),Shared Leadership:Reframing the hows and whys of leadership(pp.173-192).Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
233.Siggelkow,N.& Levinthal,D.A.(2003).Temporarily Divide to Conquer:Centralized,Decentralized,and Reintegrated Organizational Approaches to Exploration and Adaptation.Organization Science,14(6),650-669.
234.Sims,H.P.,Jr.,& Manz,C.C.(1996).Company of heroes:Unleashing the power of self-leadership.New York:Wiley.
235.Sims,H.P.,Jr.,Szilagyi,& Keller,R.T.(1976).The Measurement of Job Characteristics,Academy of Management Journal,19,159-212.
236.Sivasubramaniam,N.,Murry,W.D.,Avolio,B.J.,& Jung,D.I.(2002).A longitudinal model of the effects of team leadership and group potency on group performance.Group & Organization Management,27:66-96.
237.Smith,P.C.,Kendall,L.,& Hulin,C.L.(1969).The measurement of satisfaction work and retirement.Chicago:Rand McNally.
238.Smith,C.A.,Organ,D.W.,& Near,J.P.(1983).Organizational citizenship behavior:Its nature and antecedents,Journal of Applied Psychology,68,653-663.
239.Snijders,T.A.B.&Bosker,R.J.(1999).Multilevel Analysis:An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel modelling,Sage,New York.
240.Solomon,A.,Loeffer,F.J.,& Frank,G.H.(1953).An analysis of co-therapist interaction in group psychotherapy.International Journal of Group Psychotherapy,3,171-180.
241.Sparrowe,R.T.,& Liden,R.C.(1997).Process and structure in leader-member exchange.Academy of Management Review,22,522-552.
242.Sparrowe,R.T.,Liden,R.C.,Wayne,S.J.,& Kraimer,M.L.(2001).Social networks and the performance of individuals and groups.Academy of Management Journal,44,316-325.
243.Spector,P.E.(1986).Perceived control by employees:A meta-analysis of studies concerning autonomy and participation at work.Human Relations,39,1005-1016.
244.Spreitzer,G.M.(1995).Psychological empowerment in the workplace Dimensions,measurement,and validation.Academy of Management Journal,38(5),1442-1465.
245.Spillance,J.P.(2006).Distributed leadership.San Francisco:John Wiley & Sons.
246.Spooner,S.H.,Keenan,R.,& Card,M.(1997).Determining if shared leadership is being practiced:Evaluation methodology.Nursing Administration Quarterly,22,47-57.
247.Steers R.M.(1977).Antecedents and outcome of organizational commitment.Administrative Science Quarterly,22,4-56.
248.Steiger,J.H.,& Lind,J.M.(1980).Statistically based tests for the number of common factors.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Psychometric Society,Iowa City,IA.
249.Stein,R.T.,& Heller,T.(1979).An empirical analysis of the correlations between leadership status and participation rates reported in the literature.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,37,1993-2002.
250.Steiner,I.D.(1972).Group process and productivity.New-York:Academic Press.
251.Stewart,G.L.,& Manz,C.C.(1995).Leadership for self-managing work teams:a typology and integrative model.Human Relations,7,747-68.
252.Sugawara,H.M.& MacCallum,R.C.(1993).Effect of Estimation Method on Incremental Fit Indexes for Covariance Structure Models.Applied Psychological Measurement,17,365-77.
253.Swailes,S.(2002).Organisational commitment:a critique of the construct and measures.International Journal of Management Reviews,4(2),155-178.
254.Thibaut,J.,& Kelley,H.H.(1959).The social psychology of groups.New York:Wiley.
255.Thompson,J.D.(1967).Organization in action.New York:Mcgraw Hill.
256.Thompson,D.& McNamara,J.(1997).Job satisfaction in educational organizations:A synthesis of research findings.Educational Administration Quarterly,33(1):1-31.
257.Thoreson,E.E.,&Mahoney,M.J.(1974).Behavioral self-control.New York:Holt,Rinehart & Winston.
258.Thorndike,E.L.(1911).Animal intelligence:Experimental studies.New York:Macmillan.
259.Tjosvold,D.,Law,K.S.,& Sun.H.(2006).Effectiveness of Chinese Teams:The Role of Conflict Types and Conflict Management Approaches.Management and Organization Review,2(2),231-252.
260.Turner,C.E.(1993,June).Test room studies in employee effectiveness.American Journal of Pubic Health,23,577-584.
261.Van de Ven,A.H.& Diane,L.F.(1980).Measuring and assessing organizations.NY:John Wiley and Sons.
262.Van Dyne.L,Graham,J.W.& Dienesch,R.M.(1994).Organizational citizenship behavior:Construct redefinition,measurement,and validation.Academy of Management Journal,37,765-802.
263.Vroom,V.H.(1964).Work and motivation.New York:Wiley.
264.Vroom,V.H.& Yetton,P.W.(1973).Leadership and Decision-making,University of Pittsburgh Press,USA.
265.Wageman,R.(1995).Interdependence and Group Effectiveness.Administrative Science Quarterly,40,145-180.
266.Wageman,R.(2001).Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams.In J.S.Osland,D.A.Kolb & I.M.Rubin (Eds.),The Organizational Behavior Reader (7th ed.,pp.231-249).Upper Saddle River,NJ:Prentice Hall.
267.Waldman,D.A.,Bass,B.M.,& Einstein,W.0.(1987).Leadership and outcomes of performance appraisal process.Journal of Occupational Psychology,60,177-186.
268.Weber,M.(1924/1946).The sociology of charismatic authority.In H.H.Mills & C.W.Mills (Eds.),From Max Weber:Essays in sociology.New York:Oxford University Press.
269.Wegner,D.M.(1987).Transactive memory-.A contemporary analysis of the group mind.In B.Mullen&G.R.Goethals(Eds.),Theories of group behavior(pp.185-208).New York:Springer-Verlag.
270.Weingast,D.(1980).Shared Leadership:The Damn Thing Works.Educational Leadership,37(6),502-505.
271.Winter,S.(1976).Development stages in the roles and concerns of group co-leaders.Small Group Behavior,7(3),349-362.
272.Witt,L.A.& Nye,L.G.(1992).Gender and the relationship between perceived fairness of pay or promotion and job satisfaction.Journal of Applied Psychology,77:910-917.
273.Wood,M.S.(2005).Determinants of shared leadership in management teams.International Journal of Leadership Studies,1(1),64-85.
274.Wright,B.M.& Barker,J.R.(2000).Assessing concertive control in the team environment. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology 73,345-361.
275.Yammarino,F.J.,& Bass,B.M.(1990).Long-term forecasting of transformational leadership and its effects among naval officers.In K.E.Clark& M.B.Clark(Eds.),Measures of leadership(pp.151-170).West Orange,NJ:Leadership Library of America.
276.Yang,O.,& Shao,Y.E.(1996).Shared leadership in self-managed teams:A competing values approach.Total Quality Management,7(5),521-534.
277.Yeatts,D.E.,& Hyten,C.(1998).High-Performing Self-Managed Work Teams:A Comparison of Theory to Practice.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage Publishing.
278.Yeatts,D.E.,Hyten,C.,& Barnes,D.(1998).What are the key factors for self-managed team success? The Journal for Quality and Participation,19,68-80.
279.Yukl,G.A.(1998).Leadership in organizations(4th Ed.).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
280.Yukl,G.A.(2001).Leadership in organizations(5th Ed.).Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall.
281.Zaccaro,S.J.,Ritman,A.L.,& Marks,M.A.(2001).Team leadership.Leadership Quarterly,12,451-483.