9-11岁儿童日常情境中传递性推理能力发展的实验研究
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摘要
传递性关系推理是认知发展的一个重要方面，也是儿童思维发展的重要基础。科学心理学的研究始于20世纪初，大致可分为五个阶段。已有研究主要涉及了传递性关系推理的性质、个体传递性关系推理的最早年龄、个体传递性关系推理的心理模型、个体进行传递性关系推理能力的策略等问题。以往的关于儿童传递性推理研究绝大多数是关于儿童在物理领域的传递性推理，如长度、高度、大小等问题。
但是儿童的认知发展，不仅指儿童对物理世界的认知，也指对社会世界的认知。而且儿童的认知发展和社会性发展不是彼此分离的过程，而是相互依存的。
本研究以240名9-11岁儿童为被试，设计了2个实验，分别采用3×2×2和3×2设计，比较了儿童日常情境中的传递性推理和物理传递性推理以及日常情境中的真传递性推理和假传递性推理。实验结论如下：
1、9岁、10岁、11岁儿童在日常情境中的传递性推理能力比物理传递性推理能力发展更慢，到11岁时，儿童日常情境中的传递性推理能力仍很不成熟。
2、儿童在物理传递性推理中比在日常情境的传递性推理中采用更多的逻辑策略。儿童在日常情境的传递性推理中采用逻辑策略与非逻辑策略差异不显著。
3、儿童在日常情境中对类似于传递性推理的假传递性推理能够根据社会经验从他们的社会世界中获取规则并且把它转化为简单的推理策略，这些策略使他们能够预测比较复杂的社会相互作用的结果。
Transitive inference is an important aspect in cognitive development and is also important basis in the development of children's thought. From the early of the 19th century, the international psychologists had conducted a great deal of experiments on this topic, and known a lot of about human's transitivity. According to the great deal of former research on transitivity, the development of research on this topic can be divided into five periods. Among the enormous former researches, there were the main properities of transitivity, the intial sprouting age of children's transitivity, the mental models of transitive inference process, the processing strategies and so on. Most of the former research on children's transitive inference is about transitive inference in the physical field, such as length, height, size.
However, the children's cognitive development is not only about the physical field but also about the social field. Morever children's cognitive development and social development cann't be seperated and they depend on each other for existance.
In this study, we conducted two experiments, using 240 children aged 9 to 11 to compare children's transitive inference in the daily situation with that in the physical field. And we also compared true transitive inference with false transitive inference in daily situation. Thus, the following conclusions have been drawn:
l.At the age range from 9 to 11,the children's ability of transitive inference in the daily situation develops slower than that in physical field. At the age of 11, the children's
ability of transitive inference in the daily situation doesn't develop well yet.
2.The children adopt more logic strategies in the daily situation than that in the physical field. Analysis by strategies types of transitive inference between logic and non-logic didn't show any significant effects at these ages.
3.When making the false transitive reasoning similar to the true transitive reasoning in the daily situation, the children can pick up regularities in their social world and translate these into simple inferential strategies that allow them to predict the outcome of fairly complex social interactions.
但是儿童的认知发展，不仅指儿童对物理世界的认知，也指对社会世界的认知。而且儿童的认知发展和社会性发展不是彼此分离的过程，而是相互依存的。
本研究以240名9-11岁儿童为被试，设计了2个实验，分别采用3×2×2和3×2设计，比较了儿童日常情境中的传递性推理和物理传递性推理以及日常情境中的真传递性推理和假传递性推理。实验结论如下：
1、9岁、10岁、11岁儿童在日常情境中的传递性推理能力比物理传递性推理能力发展更慢，到11岁时，儿童日常情境中的传递性推理能力仍很不成熟。
2、儿童在物理传递性推理中比在日常情境的传递性推理中采用更多的逻辑策略。儿童在日常情境的传递性推理中采用逻辑策略与非逻辑策略差异不显著。
3、儿童在日常情境中对类似于传递性推理的假传递性推理能够根据社会经验从他们的社会世界中获取规则并且把它转化为简单的推理策略，这些策略使他们能够预测比较复杂的社会相互作用的结果。
Transitive inference is an important aspect in cognitive development and is also important basis in the development of children's thought. From the early of the 19th century, the international psychologists had conducted a great deal of experiments on this topic, and known a lot of about human's transitivity. According to the great deal of former research on transitivity, the development of research on this topic can be divided into five periods. Among the enormous former researches, there were the main properities of transitivity, the intial sprouting age of children's transitivity, the mental models of transitive inference process, the processing strategies and so on. Most of the former research on children's transitive inference is about transitive inference in the physical field, such as length, height, size.
However, the children's cognitive development is not only about the physical field but also about the social field. Morever children's cognitive development and social development cann't be seperated and they depend on each other for existance.
In this study, we conducted two experiments, using 240 children aged 9 to 11 to compare children's transitive inference in the daily situation with that in the physical field. And we also compared true transitive inference with false transitive inference in daily situation. Thus, the following conclusions have been drawn:
l.At the age range from 9 to 11,the children's ability of transitive inference in the daily situation develops slower than that in physical field. At the age of 11, the children's
ability of transitive inference in the daily situation doesn't develop well yet.
2.The children adopt more logic strategies in the daily situation than that in the physical field. Analysis by strategies types of transitive inference between logic and non-logic didn't show any significant effects at these ages.
3.When making the false transitive reasoning similar to the true transitive reasoning in the daily situation, the children can pick up regularities in their social world and translate these into simple inferential strategies that allow them to predict the outcome of fairly complex social interactions.
引文
1. Evans J.St.B.T. The psychology of deductive reasoning. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982.
2. Bryant P E &. Kopytynska H.Spontaneous measurement by young children. Nature, 1976, 260:773.
3. Kallio K D.Developmental difference in the comprehension of simple and compound comparative relations. Child Development, 1988,59:397-410.
4. Newstead S Keeble S &. Manktelow K.Children's performance on set inclusion and linear ordering relationships. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1985, 23(2): 105-108.
5. Rabinowitz F M &. Howe M L. Development of the middle concept. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1994, 57: 418-448.
6. Piaget J. Judgement and reasoning in the child. London: Routledge &. Kegal Paul. 1928.
7．斯腾伯格著，俞晓琳、吴国宏译．超越IQ-人类智力的三元理论．华东师范大学出版社．2000，2．
8. Nguyen D B, Revlin R. Transitive inferences from narrative relations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1993,19:1197-1210.
9. Barrouillet P. Transitive inferences from set inclusion relations and working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1996, 6: 1408-1422.
10. Favrel J, Barrouillet P. On the relation between representations constructed from text comprehension and transitive inference production. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2000, 26: 187-203.
11. Markovits H &. Dumas C. Developmental Patterns in the understanding of social and physical transitivity. Journal of exprimental child psychology, 1999,73:95-111.
12. Stevens S. S. Mathematics, measurement, and psychophysics. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.). Handbook of experimental psychology. New York: Wiley. 1951, 1-49.
13. Piaget J. Genetid epistemology (E. Duckworth, Transl.) New York: Columbia Univ.
Press. 1970.
14. Flavell J. H. Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall. Halford, G. S. (1980). A learning set approach to multiple classification: Evidence for a theory of cognitive levels. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1985,3:409-422.
15. Sternberg R.J & Weil G. M.An aptitude-strategy interaction in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1980, 72: 226-234.
16．李红．儿童传递性关系推理的发展及其心理模型(博士论文)．1997．
17. Piaget J. The language and thought of the child. Cleveland: Meridian.(Original published 1923), 1955.
18. Braine M D S. The ontogeny of certain logical operations:Piaget's formulation examined by nonverbal methods. Psychological Monographs:General and Applied, 73(5,while No. 475)1-43.
19. Bryant P. E. & Trabaso T. Transitive inferences and memory in young children. Nature (London), 1971, 232: 456-458.
20. Halford G S &. Kelly M E. On the basis of early transitivity judgements. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1984, 38: 42-63.
21．魏华忠，宋世龙3-6岁儿童传递性关系推理的研究．心理学报．1994，26(3)，255-231．
22. Hunter I. M. L. The solving of three-term series problems. British Journal of Psychology. 1957, 48: 286-298.
23. Desoto C. B. London M. & Handel S. Social reasoning and spatial paralogic. Journal of Personalty and Social Psychology. 1965, 2: 513-521.
24. Clark H. H. The influence of language in solving three-term series problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1969, 82: 205-215.
25. Quinton G. & Fellow B.'Perceptual'strategies in the solving of three-term series problems. British Journal of Psychology, 1975,66:69-78.
26．李红．个体解决三项系列问题的心理模型．心理学报．2001，33(6)，518-525．
27. Harris M. R. &. McGonigle B. O. A model of transitive choice. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 1994, 47B: 319-348.
28. DeBroysson-Bardies B. & O'Reggan K. What children do in spite of adult's hypotheses. Nature (London), 1973, 246: 531-534.
29. Trabasso T Representation, memory and reasoning: How do we make transitive inference? In A. D. Pick (Eds.) Minnesota symposia on child psychology (Vol.9). Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1975.
30. Breslow L. Reevaluation of the literature on the development of transitive inferences. Psychological Bulletin, 1981,89:325-351.
31. Trabasso T. The role of memory as a system in making transitive inferences. In R. V., Jr & J. W. Hagan (Eds). Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition. Hillsdale. NJ: Erblaum, 1977.
32. Chapman M. & Lindenberger U. Transitivity judgments, memory for premises, and models of children's reasoning. Develpomental Review, 1992,12:124-163.
33. Brainerd C &. Kingma J. Do children have to remember to reason? A fuzzy-trace theory of transitivity development. Developmental Review, 1984, 4: 311-377.
34. Wright B C. Reconceptualizing the transitive inference ability: a framework for existing and future research. Developemental Review, 2001, 21: 375-422.
35. Joanna J. Bryson &. Jonathan C S. Leong. Primate errors in transitive inference. August 27, 2002.
36．胡竹箐．推理心理研究中的逻辑加工与非逻辑加工评析．心理科学，2002，3：318-320．
37. Mayer R E.Thinking, problem solving, cognition. Freedman and Company, 1992.
38. Woodworth R S &. Sells S B. An atmosphere effect in formal syllogistic reasoning. Journal of experimental psychology, 1935, 18: 451-460.
39. John-Laird P N &. Steedman M. The psychology of syllogisms. Cognitive Psychology, 1978,10: 64-99.
40. Chapman L J &. Chapman A P. Atmosphere effect reexamined. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1959, 58: 220-226.
41. Trabasso T. The role of memory as a system in making transitive inferences. In R.V.
Jr. &.J W. Hagan(Eds.).Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition. Hillsdale NJ: Erblaum, 1977.
42. Pears R &. Bryant P E. Transitive inferences by young children about spatial position. British Journal of Psychology, 1990, 81: 497-510.
43. Chapman M &. Lindenberger U. Functions, operations and decalage in the development of transitivity. Developmental Review, 1992,12:187-198.
44. Davis H. Transitive inference in rats (Rattus norvegicus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 1992, 106: 342-349.
45. Johnson-Laird P N. Reasoning without logic. In T. Myers, K. Brown &. B McGonigle (Eds.), Reasoning and discourse processes. London: Academic Press, 1986:13-49.
46. Markovits H, Dumas C &. Malfait N. Understanding transitivity of a spatial relationship, a developmental analysis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1995, 59: 124-141.
47．周宗奎．现代儿童发展心理学．安徽人民出版社，1999，39．
48．王甦．认知心理学，北京大学出版社，1992，315-321．
49. Von Hecker V. How do logical inference rules help construct social mentalmodels? Journalof Experimental Social Psychology, 1997,33:367-400.
2. Bryant P E &. Kopytynska H.Spontaneous measurement by young children. Nature, 1976, 260:773.
3. Kallio K D.Developmental difference in the comprehension of simple and compound comparative relations. Child Development, 1988,59:397-410.
4. Newstead S Keeble S &. Manktelow K.Children's performance on set inclusion and linear ordering relationships. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1985, 23(2): 105-108.
5. Rabinowitz F M &. Howe M L. Development of the middle concept. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1994, 57: 418-448.
6. Piaget J. Judgement and reasoning in the child. London: Routledge &. Kegal Paul. 1928.
7．斯腾伯格著，俞晓琳、吴国宏译．超越IQ-人类智力的三元理论．华东师范大学出版社．2000，2．
8. Nguyen D B, Revlin R. Transitive inferences from narrative relations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1993,19:1197-1210.
9. Barrouillet P. Transitive inferences from set inclusion relations and working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1996, 6: 1408-1422.
10. Favrel J, Barrouillet P. On the relation between representations constructed from text comprehension and transitive inference production. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2000, 26: 187-203.
11. Markovits H &. Dumas C. Developmental Patterns in the understanding of social and physical transitivity. Journal of exprimental child psychology, 1999,73:95-111.
12. Stevens S. S. Mathematics, measurement, and psychophysics. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.). Handbook of experimental psychology. New York: Wiley. 1951, 1-49.
13. Piaget J. Genetid epistemology (E. Duckworth, Transl.) New York: Columbia Univ.
Press. 1970.
14. Flavell J. H. Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall. Halford, G. S. (1980). A learning set approach to multiple classification: Evidence for a theory of cognitive levels. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1985,3:409-422.
15. Sternberg R.J & Weil G. M.An aptitude-strategy interaction in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1980, 72: 226-234.
16．李红．儿童传递性关系推理的发展及其心理模型(博士论文)．1997．
17. Piaget J. The language and thought of the child. Cleveland: Meridian.(Original published 1923), 1955.
18. Braine M D S. The ontogeny of certain logical operations:Piaget's formulation examined by nonverbal methods. Psychological Monographs:General and Applied, 73(5,while No. 475)1-43.
19. Bryant P. E. & Trabaso T. Transitive inferences and memory in young children. Nature (London), 1971, 232: 456-458.
20. Halford G S &. Kelly M E. On the basis of early transitivity judgements. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1984, 38: 42-63.
21．魏华忠，宋世龙3-6岁儿童传递性关系推理的研究．心理学报．1994，26(3)，255-231．
22. Hunter I. M. L. The solving of three-term series problems. British Journal of Psychology. 1957, 48: 286-298.
23. Desoto C. B. London M. & Handel S. Social reasoning and spatial paralogic. Journal of Personalty and Social Psychology. 1965, 2: 513-521.
24. Clark H. H. The influence of language in solving three-term series problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1969, 82: 205-215.
25. Quinton G. & Fellow B.'Perceptual'strategies in the solving of three-term series problems. British Journal of Psychology, 1975,66:69-78.
26．李红．个体解决三项系列问题的心理模型．心理学报．2001，33(6)，518-525．
27. Harris M. R. &. McGonigle B. O. A model of transitive choice. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 1994, 47B: 319-348.
28. DeBroysson-Bardies B. & O'Reggan K. What children do in spite of adult's hypotheses. Nature (London), 1973, 246: 531-534.
29. Trabasso T Representation, memory and reasoning: How do we make transitive inference? In A. D. Pick (Eds.) Minnesota symposia on child psychology (Vol.9). Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1975.
30. Breslow L. Reevaluation of the literature on the development of transitive inferences. Psychological Bulletin, 1981,89:325-351.
31. Trabasso T. The role of memory as a system in making transitive inferences. In R. V., Jr & J. W. Hagan (Eds). Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition. Hillsdale. NJ: Erblaum, 1977.
32. Chapman M. & Lindenberger U. Transitivity judgments, memory for premises, and models of children's reasoning. Develpomental Review, 1992,12:124-163.
33. Brainerd C &. Kingma J. Do children have to remember to reason? A fuzzy-trace theory of transitivity development. Developmental Review, 1984, 4: 311-377.
34. Wright B C. Reconceptualizing the transitive inference ability: a framework for existing and future research. Developemental Review, 2001, 21: 375-422.
35. Joanna J. Bryson &. Jonathan C S. Leong. Primate errors in transitive inference. August 27, 2002.
36．胡竹箐．推理心理研究中的逻辑加工与非逻辑加工评析．心理科学，2002，3：318-320．
37. Mayer R E.Thinking, problem solving, cognition. Freedman and Company, 1992.
38. Woodworth R S &. Sells S B. An atmosphere effect in formal syllogistic reasoning. Journal of experimental psychology, 1935, 18: 451-460.
39. John-Laird P N &. Steedman M. The psychology of syllogisms. Cognitive Psychology, 1978,10: 64-99.
40. Chapman L J &. Chapman A P. Atmosphere effect reexamined. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1959, 58: 220-226.
41. Trabasso T. The role of memory as a system in making transitive inferences. In R.V.
Jr. &.J W. Hagan(Eds.).Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition. Hillsdale NJ: Erblaum, 1977.
42. Pears R &. Bryant P E. Transitive inferences by young children about spatial position. British Journal of Psychology, 1990, 81: 497-510.
43. Chapman M &. Lindenberger U. Functions, operations and decalage in the development of transitivity. Developmental Review, 1992,12:187-198.
44. Davis H. Transitive inference in rats (Rattus norvegicus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 1992, 106: 342-349.
45. Johnson-Laird P N. Reasoning without logic. In T. Myers, K. Brown &. B McGonigle (Eds.), Reasoning and discourse processes. London: Academic Press, 1986:13-49.
46. Markovits H, Dumas C &. Malfait N. Understanding transitivity of a spatial relationship, a developmental analysis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1995, 59: 124-141.
47．周宗奎．现代儿童发展心理学．安徽人民出版社，1999，39．
48．王甦．认知心理学，北京大学出版社，1992，315-321．
49. Von Hecker V. How do logical inference rules help construct social mentalmodels? Journalof Experimental Social Psychology, 1997,33:367-400.