全球变暖风险的国际媒介建构
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摘要
媒介报道是传递环境风险信息的重要渠道。在现代风险社会的背景下,全球变暖,作为一种全球性环境风险,早在上世纪70年代,就出现在国际媒介的报道之中。国际媒体在界定、诠释、和建构这一全球性风险上,具有持久且广泛的影响力。在媒介渐趋全球化的背景下,本研究目的在于深入了解国际媒体的风险报道在总体和历时的建构中,呈现怎样的相似性以及差异性特征。这种共性和差异的分析,有利于加深对于风险的媒介建构特征的了解。
本研究在建构主义理论指导下,以风险的社会扩大理论和框架分析理论作为基础,采用新闻文本的定量计算和话语分析的方法,对分别隶属中、美两国的新华社和美联社的全球变暖报道加以分析。新闻文本的具体分析,涉及到三个方面：风险议题框架、新闻通用框架、以及风险话语。
通过对上述三个方面的总体和历时建构特征分析,获得了以下研究结果：
首先,从风险议题框架的使用特征来看,美联社倾向于使用风险反思议题框架,新华社倾向于使用风险调控议题框架。这两种框架都属于较高层次的风险议题框架,因为两者都涉及到风险引发的社会争议和冲突。风险调控议题是将立场的冲突和对立,隐含在报道之中；而风险反思议题则是直接的陈述争议问题。
其次,从新闻通用框架的使用来看,美联社倾向于使用冲突框架,新华社倾向于使用责任框架。两种框架也都涉及到风险引发的争议问题。与冲突框架相比,责任框架是将立场的对立和冲突,隐含在报道之中。同时,与新华社相比,美联社中使用的新闻通用框架之间,具有较强且较为广泛的相关性。这说明美联社新闻通用框架的使用更为多样且综合性强。
再次,分别对风险议题框架和新闻通用框架在风险报道的高低变化周期中,是否呈现相应的变化进行了进一步分析。两家通讯社中,随着媒介报道量的增多,冲突性强的风险议题框架也随之增多。而随着媒介报道量的增多,冲突性强的新闻通用框架,并没有相应的变化。这说明媒体风险报道中,风险议题是影响媒介注意变化的主要因素；而媒体常用或侧重使用的新闻报道手法则相对稳定。
最后,从风险话语的具体建构特征来看,两家通讯社在报道环境风险的来源和特征时,多采用“灾难”、“损失”、“威胁”的修辞策略,借以突出风险的灾难性后果；在报道风险治理和责任时,多采用“权利修辞”和“缺乏理性修辞”两种修辞策略,借以突出风险责任问题上,我者和他者之间的冲突。从总体语境来看,两家媒体都采用了科学的、政治的两种主要认称风格(claims-making style)。同时,从风险报道的历时周期来看,两家媒体呈现的全球变暖风险,随着媒介注意的上升,皆发生了质的转变：从科学问题,逐步转变为环境问题、经济问题、政治问题、道德问题、和平安全问题。这说明,媒介报道中的风险话语,也随着媒介注意的上升,即媒介中风险信号的增强,呈现出相应的变化。
总而言之,两家国际媒体全球变暖报道中的差异和共同特征主要如下：
第一、风险议题是媒介风险报道的重要影响因素。媒介中风险信号的增强,风险议题也随之向高层次议题转变。
第二、风险的灾难性后果和风险争议是媒介关注的共同焦点。不论是从正面的、肯定的角度呈现,还是从负面的、批评的角度呈现,风险争议是媒介共同的焦点。
第三、自身利益(self-interest)是风险报道的共同新闻视角。无论是单一的从国家利益着眼,还是从多方利益入手,媒介都从利益这一相同的视角建构风险。
最后,研究总结两家媒体的具体建构差异主要为：美联社报道中,新闻报道手法更为多样化、且综合性强；美联社多直接报道利益双方的冲突和争议,新华社多间接的报道争议问题；美联社报道的风险争议涉及更为广泛,新华社报道的风险争议较为单一,多集中于中国、发展中国家,和发达国家之间的立场冲突。
Mass media carries environmental risk information to the public on a daily baisis. Since 1970s, international media have covered global warming, as a typical global environmental risk. International media have profound influence on defining, interpreting, and constructing this global risk issue world wide. This research studies the international media representation of global warming, so as to gain a better understanding about the differences and similarities in risk reporting across media in the age of global communication.
This study utilizes both quantitative and qualitative method to analyze reports on global warming by Xinhua News Agency and Associated Press. The analysis is conducted in three aspects:risk issue frames, generic news frames, and risk discourse.
Research results are listed below:
Firstly, in the aspects of risk issues covered, AP opts for more risk reflection issues, whereas, Xinhua covered risk management issues mainly. Both of theses two issues concerned with conflicting viewpoints. Risk management issues present conflicts in an indirect manner. In contrast, risk reflection issues report disagreements and criticisms directly.
Secondly, in the aspect of generic news frames, conflict frame is adopted most widely in AP news. Xinhua chooses more responsibility frame. Both of these two frames are also concerned with conflicting viewpoints. Responsibility frame presents conflicts in an indirect way. Stronger and more instances of correlations among generic news frames are found in AP news reports. This indicates that AP tends to use more news frames than Xinhua, and tend to use them in combination more often.
Thirdly, with the increase of news reports, higher level risk issues tend to increase as well. Whereas generic news frames do not follow this growth pattern, e.g. news frames which are of conflict nature do not increase with rising media attention. This results show that the intensification of risk signals in media reporting is mainly due to the increase of higher level risk issues.
At last, in the risk discourse, both media utilize rhetoric idioms, such as "disaster", "loss" and "endangerment" to describe about the nature of risk. Both media use "rhetoric of rights" and "rhetoric of unreason" to depict about the prevention and responsibility of risk. Scientific and political claims-making styles are used in both media. Along with the change in media attention, there are also changes occurring in risk discourse:It grows from a science problem gradually into an environment problem, an economy problem, a political problem, a moral problem, and ultimately a peace and security problem.
In sum, common features are discovered in the representation of global risk across media:
Firstly, risk issue is the main contributor of risk reporting. With the intensification of risk signal, risk issue starts to change from lower level to higher ones.
Secondly, consequence and conflict are the main focus for both media. Either from a positive and confirmative perspective or from a negative and critical perspective, conflicts are key issues for both media.
Thirdly, self-interest is the common reporting angle for both media. Whether from national interests only or from interests of various risk stakeholders, both media view risk as conflict between or among risk stakeholders.
Lastly, as to the difference between Xinhua and AP reporting of global warming,AP uses more news frames in reporting risk and tends to report conflict issues directly, while Xinhua tends to report in an indirect way; AP covers conflict issues widely among various risk stakeholders, while Xinhua reports mainly conflicts of china (e.g. developing countries) with developed countries.
本研究在建构主义理论指导下,以风险的社会扩大理论和框架分析理论作为基础,采用新闻文本的定量计算和话语分析的方法,对分别隶属中、美两国的新华社和美联社的全球变暖报道加以分析。新闻文本的具体分析,涉及到三个方面：风险议题框架、新闻通用框架、以及风险话语。
通过对上述三个方面的总体和历时建构特征分析,获得了以下研究结果：
首先,从风险议题框架的使用特征来看,美联社倾向于使用风险反思议题框架,新华社倾向于使用风险调控议题框架。这两种框架都属于较高层次的风险议题框架,因为两者都涉及到风险引发的社会争议和冲突。风险调控议题是将立场的冲突和对立,隐含在报道之中；而风险反思议题则是直接的陈述争议问题。
其次,从新闻通用框架的使用来看,美联社倾向于使用冲突框架,新华社倾向于使用责任框架。两种框架也都涉及到风险引发的争议问题。与冲突框架相比,责任框架是将立场的对立和冲突,隐含在报道之中。同时,与新华社相比,美联社中使用的新闻通用框架之间,具有较强且较为广泛的相关性。这说明美联社新闻通用框架的使用更为多样且综合性强。
再次,分别对风险议题框架和新闻通用框架在风险报道的高低变化周期中,是否呈现相应的变化进行了进一步分析。两家通讯社中,随着媒介报道量的增多,冲突性强的风险议题框架也随之增多。而随着媒介报道量的增多,冲突性强的新闻通用框架,并没有相应的变化。这说明媒体风险报道中,风险议题是影响媒介注意变化的主要因素；而媒体常用或侧重使用的新闻报道手法则相对稳定。
最后,从风险话语的具体建构特征来看,两家通讯社在报道环境风险的来源和特征时,多采用“灾难”、“损失”、“威胁”的修辞策略,借以突出风险的灾难性后果；在报道风险治理和责任时,多采用“权利修辞”和“缺乏理性修辞”两种修辞策略,借以突出风险责任问题上,我者和他者之间的冲突。从总体语境来看,两家媒体都采用了科学的、政治的两种主要认称风格(claims-making style)。同时,从风险报道的历时周期来看,两家媒体呈现的全球变暖风险,随着媒介注意的上升,皆发生了质的转变：从科学问题,逐步转变为环境问题、经济问题、政治问题、道德问题、和平安全问题。这说明,媒介报道中的风险话语,也随着媒介注意的上升,即媒介中风险信号的增强,呈现出相应的变化。
总而言之,两家国际媒体全球变暖报道中的差异和共同特征主要如下：
第一、风险议题是媒介风险报道的重要影响因素。媒介中风险信号的增强,风险议题也随之向高层次议题转变。
第二、风险的灾难性后果和风险争议是媒介关注的共同焦点。不论是从正面的、肯定的角度呈现,还是从负面的、批评的角度呈现,风险争议是媒介共同的焦点。
第三、自身利益(self-interest)是风险报道的共同新闻视角。无论是单一的从国家利益着眼,还是从多方利益入手,媒介都从利益这一相同的视角建构风险。
最后,研究总结两家媒体的具体建构差异主要为：美联社报道中,新闻报道手法更为多样化、且综合性强；美联社多直接报道利益双方的冲突和争议,新华社多间接的报道争议问题；美联社报道的风险争议涉及更为广泛,新华社报道的风险争议较为单一,多集中于中国、发展中国家,和发达国家之间的立场冲突。
Mass media carries environmental risk information to the public on a daily baisis. Since 1970s, international media have covered global warming, as a typical global environmental risk. International media have profound influence on defining, interpreting, and constructing this global risk issue world wide. This research studies the international media representation of global warming, so as to gain a better understanding about the differences and similarities in risk reporting across media in the age of global communication.
This study utilizes both quantitative and qualitative method to analyze reports on global warming by Xinhua News Agency and Associated Press. The analysis is conducted in three aspects:risk issue frames, generic news frames, and risk discourse.
Research results are listed below:
Firstly, in the aspects of risk issues covered, AP opts for more risk reflection issues, whereas, Xinhua covered risk management issues mainly. Both of theses two issues concerned with conflicting viewpoints. Risk management issues present conflicts in an indirect manner. In contrast, risk reflection issues report disagreements and criticisms directly.
Secondly, in the aspect of generic news frames, conflict frame is adopted most widely in AP news. Xinhua chooses more responsibility frame. Both of these two frames are also concerned with conflicting viewpoints. Responsibility frame presents conflicts in an indirect way. Stronger and more instances of correlations among generic news frames are found in AP news reports. This indicates that AP tends to use more news frames than Xinhua, and tend to use them in combination more often.
Thirdly, with the increase of news reports, higher level risk issues tend to increase as well. Whereas generic news frames do not follow this growth pattern, e.g. news frames which are of conflict nature do not increase with rising media attention. This results show that the intensification of risk signals in media reporting is mainly due to the increase of higher level risk issues.
At last, in the risk discourse, both media utilize rhetoric idioms, such as "disaster", "loss" and "endangerment" to describe about the nature of risk. Both media use "rhetoric of rights" and "rhetoric of unreason" to depict about the prevention and responsibility of risk. Scientific and political claims-making styles are used in both media. Along with the change in media attention, there are also changes occurring in risk discourse:It grows from a science problem gradually into an environment problem, an economy problem, a political problem, a moral problem, and ultimately a peace and security problem.
In sum, common features are discovered in the representation of global risk across media:
Firstly, risk issue is the main contributor of risk reporting. With the intensification of risk signal, risk issue starts to change from lower level to higher ones.
Secondly, consequence and conflict are the main focus for both media. Either from a positive and confirmative perspective or from a negative and critical perspective, conflicts are key issues for both media.
Thirdly, self-interest is the common reporting angle for both media. Whether from national interests only or from interests of various risk stakeholders, both media view risk as conflict between or among risk stakeholders.
Lastly, as to the difference between Xinhua and AP reporting of global warming,AP uses more news frames in reporting risk and tends to report conflict issues directly, while Xinhua tends to report in an indirect way; AP covers conflict issues widely among various risk stakeholders, while Xinhua reports mainly conflicts of china (e.g. developing countries) with developed countries.
引文
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③同上。
[1]Simon Cottle(Ed.)《新闻、公共关系与权力》,复旦大学出版社,2007年。
[2]程曼丽：《国际传播学教程》,北京大学出版社,2006年
[3]段连城：《对外传播学初探》,五洲传播出版社,2004年。
[4]关世杰：《国际传播学》,北京大学出版社,2004年。
[5]郭可：《当代对外传播》,复旦大学出版社,2003年。
[6]国家气候变化对策小组办公室：《全球气候变化——人类面临的挑战》,商务印书馆出版社,2005年版,第2页。
[7]吉登斯：《现代性的后果》,田禾译,译林出版社,2000年。
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