更新世晚期至全新世中期青藏高原的狩猎采集者
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- 英文论文题名：Late Pleistocene and Holocene Hunter-Gatherers on the Tibetan Plateau
- 论文作者：吕红亮
- 英文论文作者：Lu Hongliang ; Center for Tibetan Studies ; Sichuan University ; Department of Archaeology ; Sichuan University
- 年：2014
- 作者机构：四川大学中国藏学研究所;四川大学考古系;
- 会议召开时间：2014-12-01
- 会议录名称：藏学学刊（第11辑）
- 英文会议录名称：Journal of Tibetology(Vol.11)
- 语种：中文
- 分类号：Q981
- 学会代码：SCZX
- 学会名称：四川大学中国藏学研究所
- 页数：28
- 文件大小：1462k
- 原文格式：O
摘要
本文通过对近年青藏高原古气候、基因研究成果的梳理和评述,以及属于旧石器晚期的9处考古材料的再分析,讨论了更新世晚期至全新世早中期青藏高原上的狩猎采集者遗存,并特别关注青藏高原细石叶技术的起源和扩散。最后作者对"三级跳模式"提出了质疑,认为早期人类进入青藏高原很可能是多路线的。目前的证据似乎显示,青藏高原西部和东部的旧石器文化发展有着较为不同的面貌,小规模渗透进入高原西部携带阿舍利技术的人群,可能数量很小,且局限于西藏西部一隅;而末次盛冰期之后,以细石叶技术为表征的进入青藏高原的人群则可能来自高原东面。
This study examines the archaeology of hunter-gatherers on the Tibetan Plateau from 20,000-6000 years ago through an investigation of the paleoclimate and genetic evidence.This is based on a re-analysis of nine archaeological sites dated to the upper Paleolithic,and this is followed by a focus on the origins and diffusion of microblade technology on the Tibetan Plateau.Combining the archaeological evidence reported from different areas,the author criticizes that "the three-step model" of human habitation of the Tibetan plateau has a strong regional bias,and proposes "the multiple routes model" of the first migration on to Tibetan plateau.This model prefers a mosaic picture,human habitation of the Tibetan Plateau from different areas during different times in different scales.At present,we were able to identify a very early Acheulian tradition from western Tibet and a later microblade tradition from the east.
This study examines the archaeology of hunter-gatherers on the Tibetan Plateau from 20,000-6000 years ago through an investigation of the paleoclimate and genetic evidence.This is based on a re-analysis of nine archaeological sites dated to the upper Paleolithic,and this is followed by a focus on the origins and diffusion of microblade technology on the Tibetan Plateau.Combining the archaeological evidence reported from different areas,the author criticizes that "the three-step model" of human habitation of the Tibetan plateau has a strong regional bias,and proposes "the multiple routes model" of the first migration on to Tibetan plateau.This model prefers a mosaic picture,human habitation of the Tibetan Plateau from different areas during different times in different scales.At present,we were able to identify a very early Acheulian tradition from western Tibet and a later microblade tradition from the east.
引文
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12现已知的石器地点的数量与采取的调查方法有关。一旦采取“区域系统调查”策略,可以预见,石器地点的数量会成倍增加。如在青藏铁路西藏段的调查中,沿铁路沿线700公里的调查区内,发现的石器地点达27处;2004年开展的象泉河上游考古调查中,在穹窿银城方圆5公里的范围内就发现石器地点7处;2012年在青海玉树高原通天河流域的调查中,在通天河支流登额曲约20公里范围内发现石器地点数量多达19处。后两处资料尚未发表,青藏铁路石器地点的调查报告见:西藏自治区文物局、四川大学考古系、陕西省考古研究所:《青藏铁路西藏段田野考古报告》,北京:科学出版社,2005:15·109。
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45汤惠生:《青藏高原旧石器时代晚期至新石器时代初期的考古学文化及经济形态》,《考古学报》2011(4):443-466。
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47黄慰文、陈克造、袁宝印:《青海小柴达木湖的旧石器》,刊《中澳第四纪学术讨论会论文集》,1987:168-175。黄慰文:《青藏高原的早期人类活动》,《中国西藏》2001(2):51-53。刘景芝:《青藏高原小柴达木湖和各听石制品观察》,《文物季刊》1995(3):6-20。
48 Y.Sun,Z.Lai,H.Long,X.Jun,and Q.Fan,"Quartz OSL dating of archaeological sites in Xiao Qaidam Lake of the NE Qinghai-Tibetan plateau and its implications for paleoenvironmental changesr Quaternary Geochronology,Vol.5,2010:360-364.等更指出附近存在汉代遗址,出土品与小柴达木的遗物非常类似。但这一推测因为缺乏可靠资料暂时不能接受。
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50钱方等:《藏北高原各听石器初步观察》,《人类学学报》,第7卷第1期,1988:75.83;刘景芝:《青藏高原小柴达木湖和各听石制品观察》,《文物季刊》,1995(3):6-20。
51 Y.J.Sun,Z.P.Lai,D.Madsen,et al.,"Luminescence dating of a hearth from the archaeological site of Jiangxigou in the Qinghai Lake area of the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau!'Quaternary Geochronology,Vol.12,2012:107-110.
52 D.B.Madsen,H.Z.Ma,P.J.Brantingham,et al.,"The late Upper Paleolithic occupation of the northern Tibetan Plateau Margin,"Journal of Archaeological Science,Vol.33,2006:1433-1444.
53仪明洁、高星、张晓凌、孙永娟:《青藏高原边缘地区史前遗址2009年调查试掘报告》,《人类学学报》第30卷第2期,2011:124-136;《青藏高原边缘地区晚更新世人类遗存与生存模式》,《第四纪研究》第28卷第6期,2008:969-977。
54 P.J.Brantingham and Gao Xing,"Peopling of the northern Tibetan Plateau,"World Archaeology,Vol.38:3,2006:387-414.
55 P.J.Brantingham,J.W.Olsen,and G.B.Schaller,"Lithic assemblages from the Chang Tang Region,Northern Tibet,"Antiquity,Vol.75,2001:319-327.
56 D.Rhode,Zhang Haiying,D.B.Madsen,et al.,"Epipaleolithic/early Neolithic settlements at Qinghai Lake,western China,"Journal of Archaeological Science,Vol.34(4),2007:600-612.
57宗冠福、陈万勇、黄学诗:《四川省甘孜藏族自治州炉霍县发现的古人类与旧石器材料》,《史前研究》1987(3):59-61;李淼、李海鹰:《炉霍的打制石器》,《六江流域民族综合科学考察报告二:雅砻江上游考察报告》,中国西南民族研究学会、甘孜藏族自治州人民政府编印本,1985:103-107。
58 1985年在由中国西南民族学会组织的“六江流域民族综合科学考察”活动中,雅砻江中上游考古组也在炉霍县鲜水河两岸的色得龙、宜绒、若海、吾都、固依、戈巴龙、热巴共7个地点采集到打制石器标本32件,这说明在石器时代炉霍县鲜水河流域一带曾是古人类活动较为频繁的一个地区。
59 T.Goebel,"The'microblade'adaptation and recolonization of Siberia during the late Upper Pleistocener In Elston,R.G.,and Kuhn,S.L.(eds.),Thinking Small:Global Perspectives on Microlithization,Arlington:American Anthropological Association,2002:117-131.
60 Jia-Fu Zhang,Xiao-Qing Wang,Wei-Li Qiu,et al.,"The Paleolithic site of Longwangchan in the middle Yellow River,China:Chronology,paleoenvironment and implications",Journal of Archaeological Science,Vol.38:7,2011:1537-1550.
61李永宪:《试论中国西南地区的细石器》,《中国考古学会第九次年会论文集》,北京:文物出版社,1997:195-204。
62孙其刚:《骨梗石刃刀探究》,《中国历史文物》,2003(6):12-20。云翔:《试论石刃骨器》,《考古》,1988(9):825-835。木村英明:《ツベリアの細石刃石器群》,札幌大学文化学部考古学研究室,1998。
63 Robert G.Elston,P.J.Brantingham,"Microlithic Technology in Northern Asia:A Risk-Minimizing Strategy of the Late Paleolithic and Early Holocene"in R.G.Elston&S.L.Kuhn(Eds.),Thinking Small:Global Perspectives on Microlithization(Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association Number 12),Washington D.C.:American Anthropological Association,2002:103-116.
64李永宪:《略论西藏的细石器遗存》,《西藏研究》,1992(1):126-132。
65西藏自治区文物局、四川大学考古学系、陕西省文物考古研究所:《青藏铁路西藏段田野考古报告》,北京:科学出版社,2005。
66汤惠生:《青藏高原发现的细石器新材料——兼论旧石器问题》,发布于青藏高原史前研究国际学术会议上,2011年8月25日,成都。
67李永宪、霍巍:《西藏仲巴县城北石器地点》,《考古》,1994(7):577-586。
68 M.L.Inizan,"Pressure Debitage in the Old World:Forerunners,Researchers,Geopolitics-Handing on the Baton,"in P.Desrosiers(ed.),The Emergence of Pressure Blade Making:From Origin to Modem Experimentation,New York:Springer,2012:11-43.
69张东菊、陈发虎等:《甘肃大地湾遗址距今6万年来的考古记录与旱作农业起源》,《科学通报》,2010(10):887-894。
70陈苇:《四川汉源富林遗址(2009-2010)发掘与收获》,发布于青藏高原史前研究国际学术会议上,2011年8月25日,成都。
71 A.H.丹尼,V.M.马松主编:《中亚文明史》第一卷,中国对外翻译出版公司、联合国教科文组织,2002:58。V.A.Ranov,K.A.Kolobova and A.I.Krivoshapkin,"The upper Paleolithic assemblages of the Shugnou,Tajikistan,"Archaeology Ethnology&Anthropology of Eurasia,Vol.40:2,2012,pp.2-24.
72 Frederique Brunet,"The Technique of Pressure Knapping in Central Asia:Innovation or Diffusion?,"The Emergence of Pressure Blade Making:From Origin to Modem Experimentation,New York:Springer,2012:307-328.
73 V.N.Misra,Bagor,"A Late Mesolithic Settlement in North-West India,"World Archaeology,Vol.1,1973:92-110.
74陈淳:《几何形细石器和细石叶的打制及用途》,《文物春秋》,1993(4):72-78。
75 C.Clarkson,M.Petraglia,R.Korisettar et al.,"the oldest and longest enduring microlithic sequence in India:35,000 years of modern human occupation and change at the Jwalapuram Locality 9 rockshelter,"Antiquity,Vol.83,2009:326-348.
76但其观点一直随着新的测年数据而在不断变化。例如2001年Brantingham据羌塘高原采集石器中“石叶”的认定,以及其与水洞沟石叶工业的相似性,认为人类拓殖青藏高原的时间是在末次冰期以前,即22,000-18,000BP前后,参见:P.J.Brantingham,J.W.Olsen,and G.B.Schaller,"Litnic assemblages from the Chang Tang Region,Northern Tibet,"Antiquity,Vol.75,2001:319-327.后改变了原先提出的模式,认为人类永久性占据青藏高原的年代不会超过8200BP,参见:P.J.Brantingham and Gao Xing,"Peopling of the northern Tibetan Plateau,"World Archaeology,Vol.38:3,pp.387-414.2007年其又对上述模式作了修订,认为人类出现在青藏高原可早至距今25000以前。参见P.J.Brantingham,Gao Xing,John W.Olsen,Ma Hai Zhou,David Rhode,Zhang Haiying and David B.Madsen,"A short chronology for the peopling of the Tibet an Plateau,"In Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China,Amsterdam:Elsevier,2007:129-150.
77 P.J.Brantingham et al.,"Speculation on the Timing and Nature of Late Pleistocene Hunter-gather Colonization of Tibetan Plateau;'Chinese Science Bulletin,Vol.48:14,2003:1510-1516.J.W.Olsen,the Search for Human Ancestors on the Roof of the World:Explorations in Mongolia and Tibet,Monash University Press,2004.
78 P.J.Brantingham,Gao Xing,John W.Olsen,Ma Hai Zhou,David Rhode,Zhang Haiying and David B.Madsen,"A short chronology for the peopling of the Tibetan Plateau,"In Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China,Amsterdam:Elsevier,2007:129-150.
79 M.Aldenderfer,Zhang Yinong,"The Prehistory of the Tibetan Plateau to the Seventh Century A.D.:Perspectives and Research from China and the West Since 1950,"Journal of World Prehistory,Vol.18:1,2004:1-55;J.W.Olsen,the Search for Human Ancestors on the Roof of the World;Explorations in Mongolia and Tibet,Monash University Press,2004.
80汤惠生:《青藏高原旧石器时代晚期至新石器时代初期的考古学文化及经济形态》,《考古学报》,2011(4):443-466。
81 A.Dambricourt-Malasse,"Les principales etapes de 1'occupation humaine en bordure de 1'Himalaya occidentale".L'Anthropologie,Vol.112:3,2008:404-422.
82汤惠生:《青藏高原旧石器时代晚期至新石器时代初期的考古学文化及经济形态》,《考古学报》,2011(4):443-466。
83朱万泽、钟祥浩、范建容:《西藏高原湿地生态系统特征及其保护对策》,《山地学报》第21卷增刊,2003:7-12。
84 C.Gamble,The Paleolithic Settlement of Europe,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986.王社江、沈辰:《洛南盆地旧石器早期遗址聚落形态解析》《考古》,2006(4):49-60。
2 N.J.Conard,M.Bolus,"Radiocarbon dating the appearance of modern humans and timing of cultural innovations in Europe:new results and new challenges",Journal of Human Evolution,Vol.44:3,2003:331-371.
3 P.J.Brantingham,A.I.Krivoshapkin,J.Li,and Y.Tserendagva,"The early Upper Paleolithic in Northeast Asia",Current Anthropology,Vol.42,2001:735-747;A.P.Derevianko,"The origin of anatomically modern humans and their behavior in Africa and Eurasia",Archaeology,Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia,Vol.39:3,2011:2-31.
4 P.Mellars,"Going East:New Genetic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Modern Human Colonization of Eurasia",Science,Vol.313,2006:796-800;P.Mellars,"The great human expansion",Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of United States of America,Vol.109:44,2012:17758-17764.
5 A.P.Derevianko,"The Earliest Human Migration in Eurasia and the Origin of the Upper Paleolithic,"Archaeology Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia,Vol.2:22,2005:22-36.王幼平:《青藏高原隆起与东亚旧石器文化的发展》,《人类学学报》第22卷3期,2003:192.199。
6陈胜前:《中国晚更新世——早全新世过渡期狩猎采集者的适应变迁》,《人类学学报》第25卷3期,2006:195-207.
7 Huang Weiwen,"The prehistoric human occupation of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateaur Gottmger Geographische Abhandlungen,Vol.95,1994:201-219.
8童恩正:《西藏考古综述》,《文物》1985(9):9-19。
9 Huang Weiwen,"The Prehistoric Human Occupation of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau,"Gottmger Geographische Abhandlungen,Vol.95,1994:201-219.
10汤惠生:《略论青藏高原的旧石器和细石器》,《考古》1999(5):44-54。汤惠生、张文立:《青海岩画》,北京:科学出版社,2004:166。
11高星、周振宇、关莹:《青藏高原边缘地区晚更新世人类遗存与生存模式》,《第四纪研究》2008(6):969-977。
12现已知的石器地点的数量与采取的调查方法有关。一旦采取“区域系统调查”策略,可以预见,石器地点的数量会成倍增加。如在青藏铁路西藏段的调查中,沿铁路沿线700公里的调查区内,发现的石器地点达27处;2004年开展的象泉河上游考古调查中,在穹窿银城方圆5公里的范围内就发现石器地点7处;2012年在青海玉树高原通天河流域的调查中,在通天河支流登额曲约20公里范围内发现石器地点数量多达19处。后两处资料尚未发表,青藏铁路石器地点的调查报告见:西藏自治区文物局、四川大学考古系、陕西省考古研究所:《青藏铁路西藏段田野考古报告》,北京:科学出版社,2005:15·109。
13李永宪:《专题文物图说明》,国家文物局(编):《西藏文物地图集》,北京:文物出版社,2010:56-73。
14李永宪、霍巍、更堆:《阿里地区文物志》,拉萨:西藏人民出版社,1993:32_33;刘泽纯、王富葆、蒋赞初、秦浩、吴建民:《西藏高原玛法木湖东北岸等三个地点的细石器》,《南京大学学报》(哲社版)1981(4):87-96。
15安志敏、尹泽生、李炳元:《藏北申扎双湖的旧石器和细石器》,《考古》1979(6):481-491。
16刘泽纯、王富葆、蒋赞初、秦浩、吴建民:《西藏高原多格则与扎布地点的旧石器——兼论高原古环境对石器文化分布的影响》,《考古》1986(4):289-384。
17黄慰文、陈克造、袁宝印:《青海小柴达木湖的旧石器》,《中澳第四纪学术讨论会论文集》,北京:科学出版社,1987:168-175(此文又收入:青海省文物考古研究所编:《青海考古五十年文集》,西宁:青海人民出版社,1999:18-23)。黄慰文:《青藏高原的早期人类活动》,《中国西藏》2001(2):51-53。
18李永宪、霍巍、更堆:《阿里文物志》,1993:13。霍巍:《阿里夏达错湖滨旧石器的发现》,《中国西藏》1994(6):27-28。吕红亮:《西藏旧石器时代的再认识——以阿里日土县夏达错东北岸地点为中心》,《考古》2011(3):56-68。
19李永宪:《专题文物图说明》,2010:56-73。
20 A.Chayet,Art et Archeologie du Tibet,Paris:Picard,1994:32.
21近年来比较有代表性的论文有:汤惠生:《青藏高原旧石器时代晚期至新石器时代初期的考古学文化及经济形态》,《考古学报》2011(4):443-466。《青藏高原边缘地区晚更新世人类遗存与生存模式》,《第四纪研究》2008(6):969-977。侯光良、许长军、樊启顺:《史前人类向青藏高原东北缘的三次扩张与环境演变》,《地理学报》2010(1):65-72。吕红亮:《西藏旧石器时代的再认识——以阿里日土县夏达错东北岸地点为中心》,《考古》2011(3):56-68。汤惠生、李一全:《高原考古学:青藏地区的史前研究》,《中国藏学》2012(3):49-56。王明珂:《青藏高原的古人类活动及其遗存》,《东亚考古学的再思:张光直先生逝世十周年纪念学术研讨会论文集》,台北:“中央”研究院历史语言研究所,2013:135-158。石硕:《从人类起源的新观点看西藏的旧石器时代文化遗存》,《中国藏学》2008(1):110-115.M.Aldenderfer,"Modeling the Neolithic on the Tibetan Plateau",Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China(D.Madsen,Chen Fa-Hu,and Gao Xing,eds.),Amsterdam:Elsevier,2007:151-165;M.Aldenderfer,"Moving Up in the World",American Scientist,Vol.91,2003:542-549;P.J.Brantingham,Gao Xing,John W.Olsen et al.,"A short chronology for the peopling of the Tibetan Plateau",Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China,Amsterdam:Elsevier,2007:129-150;P.J.Brantingham et al.,"Speculation on the Timing and Nature of Late Pleistocene Hunter-gather Colonization of Tibetan Plateau",Chinese Science Bulletin,Vol.48:14,2003:1510-1516.
22姚檀栋、施雅风、秦大河、焦克勤、杨志红、田立德、L.G.Thompson,E.Mosley-Thompson:《古里雅冰芯中末次间冰期以来气候变化记录研究》,《中国科学》(D辑)1997(5):447-452。
23施雅风、郑本兴、姚檀栋:《青藏高原末次冰期最盛时的冰种川与环境》,《冰川冻土》1997(2):97-113。唐领余、李春海:《青藏高原全新世植被的时空分布》,《冰川冻土》2001(4):367-374。
24 B.Su,C.Xiao,R.Deka,M.T.Seielstad,D.Kangwanpong,et al.,"Y chromosome haplotypes reveal prehistorical migrations to the Himalayas,"Human Genetics,Vol.107,2000:582-590,M.Zhao,Q.P.Kong,H.W.Wang,M.S.Peng,X.D.Xie et al.,"Mitochondrial genome evidence reveals successful Late Paleolithic settlement on the Tibetan Plateau?Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,Vol.106,2009:21230-21235;L.Kang,S.Li,S.Gupta,Y.Zhang,K.Liu,et al.,"Genetic structures of the Tibetans and the Deng people in the Himalayas viewed from autosomal STRs,"Journal of Human Genetic,Vol.55,2010:270-277,B.Wen,X.Xie,S.Gao,H.Li,H.Shi,et al.,"Analyses of genetic structure of TibetoBurman population's reveals sex-biased admixture in southern Tibeto-Burman".American Journal of Human Genetic,Vol.74,2004:856-865,X.Yi,Y.Liang,E.Huerta-Sanchez,X.Jin,Z.X.Cuo.,et al.,"Sequencing of 50human exomes reveals adaptation to high altitude,"Science,Vol.329,2010:75-78;T.S.Simonson,Y.Yang,C.D.Huff,H.Yun,G.Qin,et al.,"Genetic evidence for high-altitude adaptation in Tibet,"Science,Vol.329,2010:72-75,Zhendong Qin,Yajun Yang,Longli Kang et al.,"A Mitochondrial Revelation of Early Human Migrations to the Tibetan Plateau Before and After the Last Glacial Maximum"American Journal of Physical Anthropology,Vol.143:4,2010:555-569.
25 A.Torroni,J.A.Miller,L.G.Moore,S.Zamudio,Zhuang,et al.,"Mitochondrial DNA analysis in Tibet:implications for the origin of the Tibetan population and its adaptation to high altitude"American Journal of Physical Anthropology,Vol.93,1994:189-199.
26 M.Zhao,Q.P.Kong,H.W.Wang,M.S.Peng,X.D.Xie et al.,"Mitochondrial genome evidence reveals successful Late Paleolithic settlement on the Tibetan Plateau!'Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,Vol.106,2009:21230-21235.
27 Z.D.Qin,Y.J.Yang,L.L.Kang et al.,"A Mitochondrial Revelation of Early Human Migrations to the Tibetan Plateau Before and After the Last Glacial Maximum?American Journal of Physical Anthropology,Vol.143:4,2010:555-569.
28杜若甫、肖春杰、L.L.Cavalli-Sforza:《用38个基因座的基因频率计算中国人群间遗传距离》,《中国科学》1998(1):83-89。
29 Y.P.Qian et al.,"Multiple origins of Tibetan Y chromosomes,"Human Genetic,Vol.106,2000:pp.453-454.
30 H.Shi,B.Su,et al.,"Y chromosome evidence of earliest modern human settlement in East Asia and multiple origins of Tibetan and Japanese populationsr BMC Biology,Vol.6,2008:45;H.Shi,B.Su,et al.,"Y Chromosome Haplotypes Reveal Prehistorical Migrations to the Himalayas,Human Genetics"Vol.107,2000:582-590.
31 M.Zhao,Q.P.Kong,H.W.Wang,M.S.Peng,X.D.Xie et al.,"Mitochondrial genome evidence reveals successful Late Paleolithic settlement on the Tibetan Plateau,"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,Vol.106,2009:21230-21235.
32 Y.Peng,Z.Yang,H.Zhang,C.Cui,et al.,"Genetic variations in Tibetan populations and high-altitude adaptation at the Himalayas;'Molecular Biology and Evolution,Vol.28,2011:1075-1081.
33 T.S.Simonson et al.,"Genetic Evidence for High-Altitude Adaptation in Tibet,"Science,Vol.329,2010:72-75;X.Yi et al.,"Sequencing of 50 human exomes reveals adaptation to high altitude!'Science,Vol.329,2010:75-77.
34 Mark.S.Aldenderefr,"Peopling the Tibetan plateau:insights from archaeologyr High Altitude Medicine&Biology,Vol.12:2,2011:141-147;P.J.Brantingham,D.Rhode,and D.B.Madsen,"Archaeology Augments Tibet's Genetic History,"Science,Vol.329,2010:1467-1468.
35 G.V.Driem,"Neolithic correlates of ancient Tibeto-Burman migrations,"Archaeology and Language//(edited by R.Blench,M.Spriggs),London:Routledge,1998:67-102;G.V.Driem,"Tibeto-Burman Phylogeny and Prehistory:Languages,Material Culture and Genes",Examing the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis(edited by P.Bellwood and C.Renfrew),Cambridge:McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,2005;233-249;G.V.Driem,"Tibeto-Burman vs Indo-Chinese:implications for population geneticists,archeologists and prehistorians,"The Peopling of East Asia:Putting together Archaeology,Linguistics and Genetics(edited by L.Sagart,R.Blench and A.Sanches-Mazas),London:Routledge Curzon,2005:81-106.
36严实:《在时间尺度下看分子人类学和语言学间的关系》,《现代人类学通讯》第五卷,2001:196-197。
37 G.V.Driem,"The Trans-Himalayan phylum and its implications for population prehistory"《现代人类学通讯》第五卷,2011:135-142。
38李辉、柳扬帆:《现代人走出非洲究竟有多少年》,《“国立”国父纪念馆馆刊》(台北)第十一卷,2003:165-174;罗静、张亚平:《分子钟及其存在的问题》,《人类学学报》第19卷2期,2000:151-159。
39 Z.Qin,Y.Yang,L.Kang,S.Yan,K.Cho,H.Li,et al.,"A Mitochondrial Revelation of Early Human Migrations to the Tibetan Plateau Before and After the Last Glacial Maximum,"American Journal of Physical Anthropology,Vol.143,2010:555-569.
40 P.J.Brantingham,Xing.G,John W.Olsen,Ma Haizhou,David Rhode,Zhang Haiying and David B.Madsen,"A short chronology for the peopling of the Tibetan Plateau,"Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China(D.Madsen,ChenFa-Hu,andGaoXing,eds.),Amsterdam:Elsevier,2007:129-150.
41 L.A.Owen,R.C.Finkel,H.Ma,P.Barnard,"Late Quaternary landscape evolution in the Kunlun Mountains and Qaidam Basin,Northern Tibet:a framework for examining the links between glaciations,lake level changes and alluvial fan formation,"Quaternary International,Vol.154:55,2005:73-86.
42 D.Zhang and S.Li,"Optical dating of Tibet an human hand and footprints:An implication for the paleoenvironment of the last glaciations of the Tibetan Plateau,"Geophysical Research Letter,Vol.29:5,2002:161-163;D.Zhang and S.Li,B.S.Li,"Human settlement of the last glaciations on the Tibetan plateau,"Current Science,Vol.84:5,2003:701-704.
43 M.Aldenderfer,"Modeling the Neolithic on the Tibetan Plateau,"Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China(D.Madsen,Chen Fa-Hu,and Gao Xing,eds.).Elsevier;New York,2007:151-165;M.Aldenderfer,"Moving Up in the World,"American Scientist,Vol.91,2003:542-549.
44 P.J.Brantingham,Gao Xing,John W.Olsen,Ma Haizhou,David Rhode,Zhang Haiying and David B.Madsen,"A short chronology for the peopling of the Tibetan Plateaur Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China(D.Madsen,ChenFa-Hu,andGaoXing,eds.),Amsterdam:Elsevier,2007:129-150.
45汤惠生:《青藏高原旧石器时代晚期至新石器时代初期的考古学文化及经济形态》,《考古学报》2011(4):443-466。
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58 1985年在由中国西南民族学会组织的“六江流域民族综合科学考察”活动中,雅砻江中上游考古组也在炉霍县鲜水河两岸的色得龙、宜绒、若海、吾都、固依、戈巴龙、热巴共7个地点采集到打制石器标本32件,这说明在石器时代炉霍县鲜水河流域一带曾是古人类活动较为频繁的一个地区。
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76但其观点一直随着新的测年数据而在不断变化。例如2001年Brantingham据羌塘高原采集石器中“石叶”的认定,以及其与水洞沟石叶工业的相似性,认为人类拓殖青藏高原的时间是在末次冰期以前,即22,000-18,000BP前后,参见:P.J.Brantingham,J.W.Olsen,and G.B.Schaller,"Litnic assemblages from the Chang Tang Region,Northern Tibet,"Antiquity,Vol.75,2001:319-327.后改变了原先提出的模式,认为人类永久性占据青藏高原的年代不会超过8200BP,参见:P.J.Brantingham and Gao Xing,"Peopling of the northern Tibetan Plateau,"World Archaeology,Vol.38:3,pp.387-414.2007年其又对上述模式作了修订,认为人类出现在青藏高原可早至距今25000以前。参见P.J.Brantingham,Gao Xing,John W.Olsen,Ma Hai Zhou,David Rhode,Zhang Haiying and David B.Madsen,"A short chronology for the peopling of the Tibet an Plateau,"In Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China,Amsterdam:Elsevier,2007:129-150.
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