Heavy metals in maternal and cord blood in Beijing and their efficiency of placental transfer
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摘要
This study aimed to determine the effect of exposure to heavy metals in pregnant women in Beijing, China. We also evaluated the association of these heavy metals with birth weight and length of newborns. We measured the levels of 10 heavy metals,including lead(Pb), titanium(Ti), manganese(Mn), nickel(Ni), cadmium(Cd), chromium(Cr), antimony(Sb), stannum(Sn), vanadium(V), and arsenic(As), in 156 maternal and cord blood pairs. An inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry method was used for measurement. Pb, As, Ti, Mn, and Sb showed high detection rates(> 50%) in both maternal and cord blood. Fourteen(9%) mothers had blood Pb levels greater than the United States Center for Disease Control allowable threshold limit for children(50 μg/L).In prenatal exposure to these heavy metals, there was no significant association between any heavy metal and birth weight/length. Moreover, we estimated the placental transfer efficiency of each heavy metal, and the median placental transfer efficiency ranged from 49.6%(Ni) to 194%(Mn)(except for Cd and Sn). The level and detection rate of Cd in maternal blood were much higher than that in cord blood, which suggested that Cd had difficulty in passing the placental barrier. Prospective research should focus on the source and risk of heavy metals in non-occupationally exposed pregnant women in Beijing.
This study aimed to determine the effect of exposure to heavy metals in pregnant women in Beijing, China. We also evaluated the association of these heavy metals with birth weight and length of newborns. We measured the levels of 10 heavy metals,including lead(Pb), titanium(Ti), manganese(Mn), nickel(Ni), cadmium(Cd), chromium(Cr), antimony(Sb), stannum(Sn), vanadium(V), and arsenic(As), in 156 maternal and cord blood pairs. An inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry method was used for measurement. Pb, As, Ti, Mn, and Sb showed high detection rates(> 50%) in both maternal and cord blood. Fourteen(9%) mothers had blood Pb levels greater than the United States Center for Disease Control allowable threshold limit for children(50 μg/L).In prenatal exposure to these heavy metals, there was no significant association between any heavy metal and birth weight/length. Moreover, we estimated the placental transfer efficiency of each heavy metal, and the median placental transfer efficiency ranged from 49.6%(Ni) to 194%(Mn)(except for Cd and Sn). The level and detection rate of Cd in maternal blood were much higher than that in cord blood, which suggested that Cd had difficulty in passing the placental barrier. Prospective research should focus on the source and risk of heavy metals in non-occupationally exposed pregnant women in Beijing.
This study aimed to determine the effect of exposure to heavy metals in pregnant women in Beijing, China. We also evaluated the association of these heavy metals with birth weight and length of newborns. We measured the levels of 10 heavy metals,including lead(Pb), titanium(Ti), manganese(Mn), nickel(Ni), cadmium(Cd), chromium(Cr), antimony(Sb), stannum(Sn), vanadium(V), and arsenic(As), in 156 maternal and cord blood pairs. An inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry method was used for measurement. Pb, As, Ti, Mn, and Sb showed high detection rates(> 50%) in both maternal and cord blood. Fourteen(9%) mothers had blood Pb levels greater than the United States Center for Disease Control allowable threshold limit for children(50 μg/L).In prenatal exposure to these heavy metals, there was no significant association between any heavy metal and birth weight/length. Moreover, we estimated the placental transfer efficiency of each heavy metal, and the median placental transfer efficiency ranged from 49.6%(Ni) to 194%(Mn)(except for Cd and Sn). The level and detection rate of Cd in maternal blood were much higher than that in cord blood, which suggested that Cd had difficulty in passing the placental barrier. Prospective research should focus on the source and risk of heavy metals in non-occupationally exposed pregnant women in Beijing.
引文
Al-Saleh,I.,Coskun,S.,Mashhour,A.,Shinwari,N.,El-Doush,I.,Billedo,G.,et al.,2008.Exposure to heavy metals(lead,cadmium and mercury)and its effect on the outcome of invitro fertilization treatment.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.211,560-579.
Al-Saleh,I.,Shinwari,N.,Mashhour,A.,Mohamed,G.E.D.,Rabah,A.,2011.Heavy metals(lead,cadmium and mercury)in maternal,cord blood and placenta of healthy women.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.214,79-101.
Al-Saleh,I.,Shinwari,N.,Mashhour,A.,Rabah,A.,2014.Birth outcome measures and maternal exposure to heavy metals(lead,cadmium and mercury)in Saudi Arabian population.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.217,205-218.
Amaya,E.,Gil,F.,Freire,C.,Olmedo,P.,Fernández-Rodríguez,M.,Fernández,M.F.,et al.,2013.Placental concentrations of heavy metals in a mother-child cohort.Environ.Res.120,63-70.
Ask,K.,Akesson,A.,Berglund,M.,Vahter,M.,2002.Inorganic mercury and methylmercury in placentas of Swedish women.Environ.Health Persp.110,523-526.
Atabek,M.E.,Kurtoglu,S.,Pirgon,O.,Uzum,K.,Saraymen,R.,2007.Relation of in utero lead exposure with insulin-like growth factor-I levels and neonatal anthropometric parameters.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.210,91-95.
Ayotte,J.D.,Gronberg,J.A.M.,Apodaca,L.E.,2011.Trace elements and radon in groundwater across the United States,1992-2003.Report pp.2011-5059.
Baeyens,W.,Vrijens,J.,Gao,Y.,Croes,K.,Schoeters,G.,Den Hond,E.,et al.,2014.Trace metals in blood and urine of newborn/mother pairs,adolescents and adults of the Flemish population(2007-2011).Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.217,878-890.
Barbieri,F.L.,Gardon,J.,Ruiz-Castell,M.,Paco,V.P.,Muckelbauer,R.,Casiot,C.,et al.,2016.Toxic trace elements in maternal and cord blood and social determinants in a Bolivian mining city.Int.J.Environ.Heal.R.26,158-174.
Basu,R.,Harris,M.,Sie,L.,Malig,B.,Broadwin,R.,Green,R.,2014.Effects of fine particulate matter and its constituents on low birth weight among full-term infants in California.Environ.Res.128,42-51.
Batáriová,A.,Spěvá?ková,V.,Bene?,B.,?ejchanová,M.,?míd,J.,?erná,M.,2006.Blood and urine levels of Pb,Cd and Hg in the general population of the Czech Republic and proposed reference values.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.209,359-366.
Bell,M.L.,Belanger,K.,Ebisu,K.,Gent,J.F.,Lee,H.J.,Koutrakis,P.,et al.,2010.Prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter and birth weight:variations by particulate constituents and sources.Epidemiology(Cambridge,Mass.)21,884-891.
Bellinger,D.C.,2005.Teratogen update:Lead and pregnancy.Birth Defects Res.A 73,409-420.
Burns,J.S.,Williams,P.L.,Lee,M.M.,Revich,B.,Sergeyev,O.,Hauser,R.,et al.,2017.Peripubertal blood lead levels and growth among Russian boys.Environ.Int.106,53-59.
Butler Walker,J.,Houseman,J.,Seddon,L.,McMullen,E.,Tofflemire,K.,Mills,C.,et al.,2006.Maternal and umbilical cord blood levels of mercury,lead,cadmium,and essential trace elements in Arctic Canada.Environ.Res.100,295-318.
Caserta,D.,Graziano,A.,Lo Monte,G.,Bordi,G.,Moscarini,M.,2013.Heavy metals and placental fetal-maternal barrier:a mini-review on the major concerns.Eur.Rev.Med.Pharmaco.17,2198-2206.
CDC(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention),1991.Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children.Available:.https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/books/plpyc/contents.htm,Accessed date:15 June 2018.
CDC(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention),2010.Guidelines For The Identification And Management Of Lead Exposure In Pregnant and Lactating Women.Available:.https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/leadandpregnancy2010.pdf,Accessed date:15 June 2018.
CDC(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention),2012.New Blood Lead Levels Information.Available:.https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/blood_lead_levels.htm,Accessed date:15 June 2018.
Esteban-Vasallo,M.D.,Aragonés,N.,Pollan,M.,López-Abente,G.,Perez-Gomez,B.,2012.Mercury,cadmium,and lead levels in human placenta:a systematic review.Environ.Health Persp.120,1369-1377.
Ettinger,A.S.,Arbuckle,T.E.,Fisher,M.,Liang,C.L.,Davis,K.,Cirtiu,C.M.,et al.,2017.Arsenic levels among pregnant women and newborns in Canada:Results from the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals(MIREC)cohort.Environ.Res.153,8-16.
Feng,W.,He,X.,Chen,M.,Deng,S.,Qiu,G.,Li,X.,et al.,2015.Urinary metals and heart rate variability:a cross-sectional study of urban adults in Wuhan,China.Environ.Health Persp.123,217-222.
Greet,S.,Den,H.E.,Moniek,Z.,Rima,N.,Peter,H.,Nikolaos,S.,et al.,2006.Cadmium and children:exposure and health effects.Acta Paediatr.95,50-54.
Gundacker,C.,Hengstschl?ger,M.,2012.The role of the placenta in fetal exposure to heavy metals.Wien.Med.Wochenschr.162,201-206.
Gundacker,C.,Fr?hlich,S.,Graf-Rohrmeister,K.,Eibenberger,B.,Jessenig,V.,Gicic,D.,et al.,2010.Perinatal lead and mercury exposure in Austria.Sci.Total Environ.408,5744-5749.
Holmes,P.,James,K.A.F.,Levy,L.S.,2009.Is low-level environmental mercury exposure of concern to human health?Sci.Total Environ.408,171-182.
Imtiaz,M.,Rizwan,M.S.,Xiong,S.,Li,H.,Ashraf,M.,Shahzad,S.M.,et al.,2015.Vanadium,recent advancements and research prospects:A review.Environ.Int.80,79-88.
Jiang,Y.,Wang,H.,Chen,J.,Zhang,G.,Chen,L.,Dai,W.,et al.,2011.Blood lead levels during different trimesters of pregnancy and the possible influencing factors in Chengdu.China.Biol.Trace.Elem.Res.144,27-35.
Jiang,M.,Li,Y.,Zhang,B.,Zhou,A.,Zheng,T.,Qian,Z.,et al.,2016.A nested case-control study of prenatal vanadium exposure and low birthweight.Hum.Reprod.31,2135-2141.
Jin,L.,Liu,J.,Ye,B.,Ren,A.,2014.Concentrations of selected heavy metals in maternal blood and associated factors in rural areas in Shanxi Province,China.Environ.Int.66,157-164.
Jin,X.,Tian,X.,Liu,Z.,Hu,H.,Li,X.,Deng,Y.,et al.,2016.Maternal exposure to arsenic and cadmium and the risk of congenital heart defects in offspring.Reprod.Toxicol.59,109-116.
Jorge,C.,2013.Lead and cadmium in maternal blood and placenta in pregnant women from a mining-smelting zone of Peru and transfer of these metals to their newborns.J.Toxicol.Environ.Health Sci.5,156-165.
Kantola,M.,Purkunen,R.,Kr?ger,P.,Tooming,A.,Juravskaja,J.,Pasanen,M.,et al.,2000.Accumulation of cadmium,zinc,and copper in maternal blood and developmental placental tissue:differences between Finland,Estonia,and St.Petersburg.Environ.Res.83,54-66.
Kim,N.S.,Lee,B.K.,2011.National estimates of blood lead,cadmium,and mercury levels in the Korean general adult population.Int.Arch.Occ.Env.Hea.84,53-63.
Kuo,C.C.,Weaver,V.,Fadrowski,J.J.,Lin,Y.S.,Guallar,E.,NavasAcien,A.,2015.Arsenic exposure,hyperuricemia,and gout in US adults.Environ.Int.76,32-40.
Lanphear,B.P.,Dietrich,K.,Auinger,P.,Cox,C.,2000.Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations<10 microg/dL in US children and adolescents.Public Health Rep.115,521-529.
Lin,C.M.,Doyle,P.,Wang,D.,Hwang,Y.H.,Chen,P.C.,2010.The role of essential metals in the placental transfer of lead from mother to child.Reprod.Toxicol.29,443-446.
Mattison,D.R.,2010.Environmental exposures and development.Curr.Opin.Pediatr.22,208-218.
Men,C.,Liu,R.,Xu,F.,Wang,Q.,Guo,L.,Shen,Z.,2018.Pollution characteristics,risk assessment,and source apportionment of heavy metals in road dust in Beijing,China.Sci.Total.Environ.612,138-147.
Menai,M.,Heude,B.,Slama,R.,Forhan,A.,Sahuquillo,J.,Charles,M.A.,et al.,2012.Association between maternal blood cadmium during pregnancy and birth weight and the risk of fetal growth restriction:The EDEN mother-child cohort study.Reprod.Toxicol.34,622-627.
Mendy,A.,Gasana,J.,Vieira,E.R.,2012.Urinary heavy metals and associated medical conditions in the US adult population.Int.J.Environ.Heal.R.22,105-118.
Mora,A.M.,van Wendel de Joode,B.,Mergler,D.,Córdoba,L.,Cano,C.,Quesada,R.,et al.,2015.Maternal blood and hair manganese concentrations,fetal growth,and length of gestation in the ISA cohort in Costa Rica.Environ.Res.136,47-56.
Nogawa,K.,Kido,T.,1993.Biological monitoring of cadmium exposure in itai-itai disease epidemiology.Int.Arch.Occ.Env.Hea.65,43-46.
Osman,K.,?kesson,A.,Berglund,M.,Bremme,K.,Schütz,A.,Ask,K.,et al.,2000.Toxic and essential elements in placentas of Swedish women.Clin.Biochem.33,131-138.
Pedersen,M.,Gehring,U.,Beelen,R.,Wang,M.,Giorgis-Allemand,L.,Andersen,A.M.N.,et al.,2016.Elemental constituents of particulate matter and newborn's size in eight European cohorts.Environ.Health Persp.124,141-150.
Schnorr Teresa,M.,Steenland,K.,Thun Michael,J.,Rinsky Robert,A.,1995.Mortality in a cohort of antimony smelter workers.Am.J.Ind.Med.27,759-770.
Tanr?kut,E.,Karaer,A.,Celik,O.,Celik,E.,Otlu,B.,Yilmaz,E.,et al.,2014.Role of endometrial concentrations of heavy metals(cadmium,lead,mercury and arsenic)in the aetiology of unexplained infertility.Eur.J.Obstet.Gyn.R.B.179,187-190.
Thomas,S.,Arbuckle,T.E.,Fisher,M.,Fraser,W.D.,Ettinger,A.,et al.,2015.Metals exposure and risk of small-for-gestational age birth in a Canadian birth cohort:The MIREC study.Environ.Res.140,430-439.
Tsuchiya,H.,Mitani,K.,Kodama,K.,Nakata,T.,1984.Placental transfer of heavy metals in normal pregnant Japanese women.Arc.Environ.Health 39,11-17.
Vigeh,M.,Yokoyama,K.,Ramezanzadeh,F.,Dahaghin,M.,Sakai,T.,Morita,Y.,et al.,2006.Lead and other trace metals in preeclampsia:A case-control study in Tehran.Iran.Environ.Res.100,268-275.
Vigeh,M.,Yokoyama,K.,Matsukawa,T.,Shinohara,A.,Ohtani,K.,2015.The relation of maternal blood arsenic to anemia during pregnancy.Women Health 55,42-57.
Wells,P.G.,Lee,C.J.J.,McCallum,G.P.,Perstin,J.,Harper,P.A.,2010.Receptor and reactive intermediate-mediated mechanisms of teratogenesis.Handbook Exp.Pharmacol.196,131-162.
Winship,K.A.,1987.Toxicity of antimony and its compounds.Adv.Drug React.Ac.Pois.Rev.6,67-90.
Yao,H.Y.,Huang,X.H.,2003.The blood lead level and pregnant outcome in pregnant women with non-occupational lead exposure.Zhonghua fu chan ke za zhi 38,340-342.
Zhang,Y.L.,Zhao,Y.C.,Wang,J.X.,Zhu,H.D.,Liu,Q.F.,Fan,Y.G.,et al.,2004.Effect of environmental exposure to cadmium on pregnancy outcome and fetal growth:A study on healthy pregnant women in China.J.Environ.Sci.Heal.A 39,2507-2515.
Zwolak,I.,2014.Vanadium carcinogenic,immunotoxic and neurotoxic effects:a review of in vitro studies.Toxicol.Mech.Method 24,1-12.
Al-Saleh,I.,Shinwari,N.,Mashhour,A.,Mohamed,G.E.D.,Rabah,A.,2011.Heavy metals(lead,cadmium and mercury)in maternal,cord blood and placenta of healthy women.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.214,79-101.
Al-Saleh,I.,Shinwari,N.,Mashhour,A.,Rabah,A.,2014.Birth outcome measures and maternal exposure to heavy metals(lead,cadmium and mercury)in Saudi Arabian population.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.217,205-218.
Amaya,E.,Gil,F.,Freire,C.,Olmedo,P.,Fernández-Rodríguez,M.,Fernández,M.F.,et al.,2013.Placental concentrations of heavy metals in a mother-child cohort.Environ.Res.120,63-70.
Ask,K.,Akesson,A.,Berglund,M.,Vahter,M.,2002.Inorganic mercury and methylmercury in placentas of Swedish women.Environ.Health Persp.110,523-526.
Atabek,M.E.,Kurtoglu,S.,Pirgon,O.,Uzum,K.,Saraymen,R.,2007.Relation of in utero lead exposure with insulin-like growth factor-I levels and neonatal anthropometric parameters.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.210,91-95.
Ayotte,J.D.,Gronberg,J.A.M.,Apodaca,L.E.,2011.Trace elements and radon in groundwater across the United States,1992-2003.Report pp.2011-5059.
Baeyens,W.,Vrijens,J.,Gao,Y.,Croes,K.,Schoeters,G.,Den Hond,E.,et al.,2014.Trace metals in blood and urine of newborn/mother pairs,adolescents and adults of the Flemish population(2007-2011).Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.217,878-890.
Barbieri,F.L.,Gardon,J.,Ruiz-Castell,M.,Paco,V.P.,Muckelbauer,R.,Casiot,C.,et al.,2016.Toxic trace elements in maternal and cord blood and social determinants in a Bolivian mining city.Int.J.Environ.Heal.R.26,158-174.
Basu,R.,Harris,M.,Sie,L.,Malig,B.,Broadwin,R.,Green,R.,2014.Effects of fine particulate matter and its constituents on low birth weight among full-term infants in California.Environ.Res.128,42-51.
Batáriová,A.,Spěvá?ková,V.,Bene?,B.,?ejchanová,M.,?míd,J.,?erná,M.,2006.Blood and urine levels of Pb,Cd and Hg in the general population of the Czech Republic and proposed reference values.Int.J.Hyg.Envir.Heal.209,359-366.
Bell,M.L.,Belanger,K.,Ebisu,K.,Gent,J.F.,Lee,H.J.,Koutrakis,P.,et al.,2010.Prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter and birth weight:variations by particulate constituents and sources.Epidemiology(Cambridge,Mass.)21,884-891.
Bellinger,D.C.,2005.Teratogen update:Lead and pregnancy.Birth Defects Res.A 73,409-420.
Burns,J.S.,Williams,P.L.,Lee,M.M.,Revich,B.,Sergeyev,O.,Hauser,R.,et al.,2017.Peripubertal blood lead levels and growth among Russian boys.Environ.Int.106,53-59.
Butler Walker,J.,Houseman,J.,Seddon,L.,McMullen,E.,Tofflemire,K.,Mills,C.,et al.,2006.Maternal and umbilical cord blood levels of mercury,lead,cadmium,and essential trace elements in Arctic Canada.Environ.Res.100,295-318.
Caserta,D.,Graziano,A.,Lo Monte,G.,Bordi,G.,Moscarini,M.,2013.Heavy metals and placental fetal-maternal barrier:a mini-review on the major concerns.Eur.Rev.Med.Pharmaco.17,2198-2206.
CDC(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention),1991.Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children.Available:.https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/books/plpyc/contents.htm,Accessed date:15 June 2018.
CDC(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention),2010.Guidelines For The Identification And Management Of Lead Exposure In Pregnant and Lactating Women.Available:.https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/leadandpregnancy2010.pdf,Accessed date:15 June 2018.
CDC(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention),2012.New Blood Lead Levels Information.Available:.https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/blood_lead_levels.htm,Accessed date:15 June 2018.
Esteban-Vasallo,M.D.,Aragonés,N.,Pollan,M.,López-Abente,G.,Perez-Gomez,B.,2012.Mercury,cadmium,and lead levels in human placenta:a systematic review.Environ.Health Persp.120,1369-1377.
Ettinger,A.S.,Arbuckle,T.E.,Fisher,M.,Liang,C.L.,Davis,K.,Cirtiu,C.M.,et al.,2017.Arsenic levels among pregnant women and newborns in Canada:Results from the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals(MIREC)cohort.Environ.Res.153,8-16.
Feng,W.,He,X.,Chen,M.,Deng,S.,Qiu,G.,Li,X.,et al.,2015.Urinary metals and heart rate variability:a cross-sectional study of urban adults in Wuhan,China.Environ.Health Persp.123,217-222.
Greet,S.,Den,H.E.,Moniek,Z.,Rima,N.,Peter,H.,Nikolaos,S.,et al.,2006.Cadmium and children:exposure and health effects.Acta Paediatr.95,50-54.
Gundacker,C.,Hengstschl?ger,M.,2012.The role of the placenta in fetal exposure to heavy metals.Wien.Med.Wochenschr.162,201-206.
Gundacker,C.,Fr?hlich,S.,Graf-Rohrmeister,K.,Eibenberger,B.,Jessenig,V.,Gicic,D.,et al.,2010.Perinatal lead and mercury exposure in Austria.Sci.Total Environ.408,5744-5749.
Holmes,P.,James,K.A.F.,Levy,L.S.,2009.Is low-level environmental mercury exposure of concern to human health?Sci.Total Environ.408,171-182.
Imtiaz,M.,Rizwan,M.S.,Xiong,S.,Li,H.,Ashraf,M.,Shahzad,S.M.,et al.,2015.Vanadium,recent advancements and research prospects:A review.Environ.Int.80,79-88.
Jiang,Y.,Wang,H.,Chen,J.,Zhang,G.,Chen,L.,Dai,W.,et al.,2011.Blood lead levels during different trimesters of pregnancy and the possible influencing factors in Chengdu.China.Biol.Trace.Elem.Res.144,27-35.
Jiang,M.,Li,Y.,Zhang,B.,Zhou,A.,Zheng,T.,Qian,Z.,et al.,2016.A nested case-control study of prenatal vanadium exposure and low birthweight.Hum.Reprod.31,2135-2141.
Jin,L.,Liu,J.,Ye,B.,Ren,A.,2014.Concentrations of selected heavy metals in maternal blood and associated factors in rural areas in Shanxi Province,China.Environ.Int.66,157-164.
Jin,X.,Tian,X.,Liu,Z.,Hu,H.,Li,X.,Deng,Y.,et al.,2016.Maternal exposure to arsenic and cadmium and the risk of congenital heart defects in offspring.Reprod.Toxicol.59,109-116.
Jorge,C.,2013.Lead and cadmium in maternal blood and placenta in pregnant women from a mining-smelting zone of Peru and transfer of these metals to their newborns.J.Toxicol.Environ.Health Sci.5,156-165.
Kantola,M.,Purkunen,R.,Kr?ger,P.,Tooming,A.,Juravskaja,J.,Pasanen,M.,et al.,2000.Accumulation of cadmium,zinc,and copper in maternal blood and developmental placental tissue:differences between Finland,Estonia,and St.Petersburg.Environ.Res.83,54-66.
Kim,N.S.,Lee,B.K.,2011.National estimates of blood lead,cadmium,and mercury levels in the Korean general adult population.Int.Arch.Occ.Env.Hea.84,53-63.
Kuo,C.C.,Weaver,V.,Fadrowski,J.J.,Lin,Y.S.,Guallar,E.,NavasAcien,A.,2015.Arsenic exposure,hyperuricemia,and gout in US adults.Environ.Int.76,32-40.
Lanphear,B.P.,Dietrich,K.,Auinger,P.,Cox,C.,2000.Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations<10 microg/dL in US children and adolescents.Public Health Rep.115,521-529.
Lin,C.M.,Doyle,P.,Wang,D.,Hwang,Y.H.,Chen,P.C.,2010.The role of essential metals in the placental transfer of lead from mother to child.Reprod.Toxicol.29,443-446.
Mattison,D.R.,2010.Environmental exposures and development.Curr.Opin.Pediatr.22,208-218.
Men,C.,Liu,R.,Xu,F.,Wang,Q.,Guo,L.,Shen,Z.,2018.Pollution characteristics,risk assessment,and source apportionment of heavy metals in road dust in Beijing,China.Sci.Total.Environ.612,138-147.
Menai,M.,Heude,B.,Slama,R.,Forhan,A.,Sahuquillo,J.,Charles,M.A.,et al.,2012.Association between maternal blood cadmium during pregnancy and birth weight and the risk of fetal growth restriction:The EDEN mother-child cohort study.Reprod.Toxicol.34,622-627.
Mendy,A.,Gasana,J.,Vieira,E.R.,2012.Urinary heavy metals and associated medical conditions in the US adult population.Int.J.Environ.Heal.R.22,105-118.
Mora,A.M.,van Wendel de Joode,B.,Mergler,D.,Córdoba,L.,Cano,C.,Quesada,R.,et al.,2015.Maternal blood and hair manganese concentrations,fetal growth,and length of gestation in the ISA cohort in Costa Rica.Environ.Res.136,47-56.
Nogawa,K.,Kido,T.,1993.Biological monitoring of cadmium exposure in itai-itai disease epidemiology.Int.Arch.Occ.Env.Hea.65,43-46.
Osman,K.,?kesson,A.,Berglund,M.,Bremme,K.,Schütz,A.,Ask,K.,et al.,2000.Toxic and essential elements in placentas of Swedish women.Clin.Biochem.33,131-138.
Pedersen,M.,Gehring,U.,Beelen,R.,Wang,M.,Giorgis-Allemand,L.,Andersen,A.M.N.,et al.,2016.Elemental constituents of particulate matter and newborn's size in eight European cohorts.Environ.Health Persp.124,141-150.
Schnorr Teresa,M.,Steenland,K.,Thun Michael,J.,Rinsky Robert,A.,1995.Mortality in a cohort of antimony smelter workers.Am.J.Ind.Med.27,759-770.
Tanr?kut,E.,Karaer,A.,Celik,O.,Celik,E.,Otlu,B.,Yilmaz,E.,et al.,2014.Role of endometrial concentrations of heavy metals(cadmium,lead,mercury and arsenic)in the aetiology of unexplained infertility.Eur.J.Obstet.Gyn.R.B.179,187-190.
Thomas,S.,Arbuckle,T.E.,Fisher,M.,Fraser,W.D.,Ettinger,A.,et al.,2015.Metals exposure and risk of small-for-gestational age birth in a Canadian birth cohort:The MIREC study.Environ.Res.140,430-439.
Tsuchiya,H.,Mitani,K.,Kodama,K.,Nakata,T.,1984.Placental transfer of heavy metals in normal pregnant Japanese women.Arc.Environ.Health 39,11-17.
Vigeh,M.,Yokoyama,K.,Ramezanzadeh,F.,Dahaghin,M.,Sakai,T.,Morita,Y.,et al.,2006.Lead and other trace metals in preeclampsia:A case-control study in Tehran.Iran.Environ.Res.100,268-275.
Vigeh,M.,Yokoyama,K.,Matsukawa,T.,Shinohara,A.,Ohtani,K.,2015.The relation of maternal blood arsenic to anemia during pregnancy.Women Health 55,42-57.
Wells,P.G.,Lee,C.J.J.,McCallum,G.P.,Perstin,J.,Harper,P.A.,2010.Receptor and reactive intermediate-mediated mechanisms of teratogenesis.Handbook Exp.Pharmacol.196,131-162.
Winship,K.A.,1987.Toxicity of antimony and its compounds.Adv.Drug React.Ac.Pois.Rev.6,67-90.
Yao,H.Y.,Huang,X.H.,2003.The blood lead level and pregnant outcome in pregnant women with non-occupational lead exposure.Zhonghua fu chan ke za zhi 38,340-342.
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