Does labor off-farm employment inevitably lead to land rent out?Evidence from China
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摘要
The focus of land economics is on how to decrease the misallocation of resources to achieve an optimal allocation of resources. Both the theories of new economics of labor migration(NELM) and the conclusions of empirical studies reveal that land resources will inevitably be reallocated(e.g., rented out) if the resources of family labor are reallocated(e.g., off-farm employment). However, this study reveals that off-farm employment does not inevitably lead to land rent out. More precisely, this study uses survey data on 8031 peasant households from 27 provinces in China and explores the relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out by describing spatial features and through empirical analysis(e.g., IV-Probit model and IV-Tobit model). The results show the following: 1) There is an indirect relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out regarding spatial area aggregation, i.e., regions with a higher ratio of off-farm employment also have a lower area of land rent out. 2) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the behavior of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the behavior, i.e., there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between off-farm employment and the behavior of land rent out, with the turning point being 55.55% offfarm employment. 3) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the area of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the area, i.e., there is an inverted Ushaped relationship between off-farm employment and the area of land rent out, with the turning point being 56.22% off-farm employment. This study helps explain why China has a high ratio of off-farm employment but a lower rate of land rent out.
The focus of land economics is on how to decrease the misallocation of resources to achieve an optimal allocation of resources. Both the theories of new economics of labor migration(NELM) and the conclusions of empirical studies reveal that land resources will inevitably be reallocated(e.g., rented out) if the resources of family labor are reallocated(e.g., off-farm employment). However, this study reveals that off-farm employment does not inevitably lead to land rent out. More precisely, this study uses survey data on 8031 peasant households from 27 provinces in China and explores the relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out by describing spatial features and through empirical analysis(e.g., IV-Probit model and IV-Tobit model). The results show the following: 1) There is an indirect relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out regarding spatial area aggregation, i.e., regions with a higher ratio of off-farm employment also have a lower area of land rent out. 2) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the behavior of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the behavior, i.e., there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between off-farm employment and the behavior of land rent out, with the turning point being 55.55% offfarm employment. 3) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the area of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the area, i.e., there is an inverted Ushaped relationship between off-farm employment and the area of land rent out, with the turning point being 56.22% off-farm employment. This study helps explain why China has a high ratio of off-farm employment but a lower rate of land rent out.
The focus of land economics is on how to decrease the misallocation of resources to achieve an optimal allocation of resources. Both the theories of new economics of labor migration(NELM) and the conclusions of empirical studies reveal that land resources will inevitably be reallocated(e.g., rented out) if the resources of family labor are reallocated(e.g., off-farm employment). However, this study reveals that off-farm employment does not inevitably lead to land rent out. More precisely, this study uses survey data on 8031 peasant households from 27 provinces in China and explores the relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out by describing spatial features and through empirical analysis(e.g., IV-Probit model and IV-Tobit model). The results show the following: 1) There is an indirect relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out regarding spatial area aggregation, i.e., regions with a higher ratio of off-farm employment also have a lower area of land rent out. 2) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the behavior of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the behavior, i.e., there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between off-farm employment and the behavior of land rent out, with the turning point being 55.55% offfarm employment. 3) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the area of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the area, i.e., there is an inverted Ushaped relationship between off-farm employment and the area of land rent out, with the turning point being 56.22% off-farm employment. This study helps explain why China has a high ratio of off-farm employment but a lower rate of land rent out.
引文
Adamopoulos T,Restuccia D(2015)Land reform and productivity:A quantitative analysis with micro data.Unpublished manuscript,University of Toronto.pp 1667-1697.https://www.economics.utoronto.ca/public/workingPapers/t ecipa-540.pdf
Burgess R(2001)Land and welfare:Theory and evidence from China.London School of Economics Working Paper.http://econ.lse.ac.uk/staff/rburgess/wp/land_and__welfare2.pdf
Carter MR,Yao Y(2002)Local versus global separability in agricultural household models:The factor price equalization effect of land transfer rights.American Journal of Agricultural Economics 84:702-715.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8276.00329
Che Y(2016)Off-farm employments and land rental behavior:evidence from rural China.China Agricultural Economic Review 8:37-54.https://doi.org/10.1108/CAER-09-2014-0086
Cheng YS,Chung KS(2017)Designing Property Rights over Land in Rural China.The Economic Journal 1-35.https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12552
China National Statistical Bureau(2018)National Economic and Social Development Report of 2017.China Statistics,Beijing,China.(In Chinese)
Deininger K(2003)Land markets in developing and transition economies:Impact of liberalization and implications for future reform.American Journal of Agricultural Economics85:1217-1222.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2003.00533.x
Deininger K,Jin S(2005)The potential of land rental markets in the process of economic development:Evidence from China.Journal of Development Economics 78:241-270.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2004.08.002
Deng X,Xu D,Qi Y,et al.(2018a)Labor Off-Farm Employment and Cropland Abandonment in Rural China:Spatial Distribution and Empirical Analysis.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15:1808.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091808
Deng X,Xu D,Zeng M,et al.(2018b)Landslides and Cropland Abandonment in China's Mountainous Areas:Spatial Distribution,Empirical Analysis and Policy Implications.Sustainability 10,3909.https://doi.org/10.3390/su10113909
Deng X,Xu D,Zeng M,et al.(2019)Does early-life famine experience impact rural land transfer?Evidence from China.Land Use Policy 81:58-67.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.10.042
Gai Q,Zhu X,Cheng M,et al.(2017)land Misallocation and Aggregate Labor Productivity.Economic Research Journal117-130.(In Chinese)
Hsieh CT,Klenow PJ(2009)Misallocation and manufacturing TFP in China and India.Quarterly Journal of Economics 124:1403-1448.https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1403
Huang J,Gao L,Rozelle S(2012)The effect of off-farm employment on the decisions of households to rent out and rent in cultivated land in China.China Agricultural Economic Review 4:5-17.https://doi.org/10.1108/17561371211196748
Ji X,Qian Z,Zhang L,et al.(2018)Rural Labor Migration and Households'Land Rental Behavior:Evidence from China.China&World Economy 26:66-85.https://doi.org/10.1111/cwe.12229
Kung JKS(2002)Off-farm labor markets and the emergence of land rental markets in rural China.Journal of Comparative Economics 30:395-414.https://doi.org/10.1006/jcec.2002.1780
Lin JY(1988)The household responsibility system in China's agricultural reform:a theoretical and empirical study.Economic Development and Cultural Change 36:S199-S224.https://doi.org/10.1086/edcc.36.s3.1566543
Lin JY(1992)Rural reforms and agricultural growth in China.The American Economic Review:34-51.https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117601
Long H(2014)Land use policy in China:Introduction.Land Use Policy 40:1-5.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.03.006
Long H,Tu S,Ge D,et al.(2016)The allocation and management of critical resources in rural China under restructuring:Problems and prospects.Journal of Rural Studies 47:392-412.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.03.011
Long H,Wu X,Wang W,et al.(2008)Analysis of urban-rural land-use change during 1995-2006 and its policy dimensional driving forces in Chongqing,China.Sensors 8:681-699.https://doi.org/10.3390/s8020681
Min S,Waibel H,Huang J(2017)Smallholder participation in the land rental market in a mountainous region of Southern China:Impact of population aging,land tenure security and ethnicity.Land Use Policy 68:625-637.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.08.033
Newey WK(1987)Efficient estimation of limited dependent variable models with endogenous explanatory variables.Journal of Econometrics 36:231-250.https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(87)90001-7
Pingali P(2007)Agricultural mechanization:adoption patterns and economic impact.Handbook of Agricultural Economics 3,2779-2805.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0072(06)03054-4
Restuccia D,Rogerson R(2008)Policy distortions and aggregate productivity with heterogeneous establishments.Review of Economic Dynamics 11:707-720.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.red.2008.05.002
Restuccia D,Rogerson R(2013)Misallocation and productivity.Review of Economic Dynamics 16:1-10.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.red.2012.11.003
Shi X,Heerink N,Futian QU(2007)Choices between different off-farm employment sub-categories:An empirical analysis for Jiangxi Province,China.China Economic Review 18:438-455.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2006.08.001
Stark O,Bloom DE(1985)The new economics of labor migration.The American Economic Review 75:173-178.https://www.jstor.org/stable/1805591
Su B,Li Y,Li L,et al.(2018)How does nonfarm employment stability influence farmers'farmland transfer decisions?Implications for China’s land use policy.Land Use Policy 74:66-72.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.09.053
Xie Y,Jiang Q(2016)Land arrangements for rural-urban migrant workers in China:Findings from Jiangsu Province.Land Use Policy 50:262-267.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.10.010
Xu DD,Zhang JF,Xie FT,et al.(2015a)Influential factors in employment location selection based on―push-pull‖migration theory-a case study in Three Gorges Reservoir area in China.Journal of Mountain Science 12:1562-1581.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3371-z
Xu D,Deng X,Guo S,et al.(2018a)Sensitivity of Livelihood Strategy to Livelihood Capital:An Empirical Investigation Using Nationally Representative Survey Data from Rural China.Social Indicators Research.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-2037-6
Xu D,Cao S,Wang XX,et al.(2018b)Influences of labor migration on rural household land transfer:A case study of Sichuan Province,China.Journal of Mountain Science 15:2055-2067.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-018-4973-7
Xu D,Guo S,Xie F,et al.(2017)The impact of rural laborer migration and household structure on household land use arrangements in mountainous areas of Sichuan Province,China.Habitat International 70:72-80.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.10.009
Xu D,Zhang J,Rasul G,et al.(2015b)Household livelihood strategies and dependence on agriculture in the mountainous settlements in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area,China.Sustainability 7:4850-4869.https://doi.org/10.3390/su7054850
Xu D,Deng X,Guo S,et al.(2019)Labor migration and farmland abandonment in rural China:Empirical results and policy implications.Journal of Environmental Management232:738-750.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.136
Zhong X,Li J,Feng Y,et al.(2013)Farmland Transfer Willingness and Behavior in the Perspective of Farm Household Cognition in Guangdong Province.Resources Science 35:2082-2093.(In Chinese)
Zou B,Mishra AK,Luo B(2018)Aging population,farm succession,and farmland usage:Evidence from rural China.Land Use Policy 77:437-445.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.06.001
Burgess R(2001)Land and welfare:Theory and evidence from China.London School of Economics Working Paper.http://econ.lse.ac.uk/staff/rburgess/wp/land_and__welfare2.pdf
Carter MR,Yao Y(2002)Local versus global separability in agricultural household models:The factor price equalization effect of land transfer rights.American Journal of Agricultural Economics 84:702-715.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8276.00329
Che Y(2016)Off-farm employments and land rental behavior:evidence from rural China.China Agricultural Economic Review 8:37-54.https://doi.org/10.1108/CAER-09-2014-0086
Cheng YS,Chung KS(2017)Designing Property Rights over Land in Rural China.The Economic Journal 1-35.https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12552
China National Statistical Bureau(2018)National Economic and Social Development Report of 2017.China Statistics,Beijing,China.(In Chinese)
Deininger K(2003)Land markets in developing and transition economies:Impact of liberalization and implications for future reform.American Journal of Agricultural Economics85:1217-1222.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2003.00533.x
Deininger K,Jin S(2005)The potential of land rental markets in the process of economic development:Evidence from China.Journal of Development Economics 78:241-270.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2004.08.002
Deng X,Xu D,Qi Y,et al.(2018a)Labor Off-Farm Employment and Cropland Abandonment in Rural China:Spatial Distribution and Empirical Analysis.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15:1808.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091808
Deng X,Xu D,Zeng M,et al.(2018b)Landslides and Cropland Abandonment in China's Mountainous Areas:Spatial Distribution,Empirical Analysis and Policy Implications.Sustainability 10,3909.https://doi.org/10.3390/su10113909
Deng X,Xu D,Zeng M,et al.(2019)Does early-life famine experience impact rural land transfer?Evidence from China.Land Use Policy 81:58-67.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.10.042
Gai Q,Zhu X,Cheng M,et al.(2017)land Misallocation and Aggregate Labor Productivity.Economic Research Journal117-130.(In Chinese)
Hsieh CT,Klenow PJ(2009)Misallocation and manufacturing TFP in China and India.Quarterly Journal of Economics 124:1403-1448.https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1403
Huang J,Gao L,Rozelle S(2012)The effect of off-farm employment on the decisions of households to rent out and rent in cultivated land in China.China Agricultural Economic Review 4:5-17.https://doi.org/10.1108/17561371211196748
Ji X,Qian Z,Zhang L,et al.(2018)Rural Labor Migration and Households'Land Rental Behavior:Evidence from China.China&World Economy 26:66-85.https://doi.org/10.1111/cwe.12229
Kung JKS(2002)Off-farm labor markets and the emergence of land rental markets in rural China.Journal of Comparative Economics 30:395-414.https://doi.org/10.1006/jcec.2002.1780
Lin JY(1988)The household responsibility system in China's agricultural reform:a theoretical and empirical study.Economic Development and Cultural Change 36:S199-S224.https://doi.org/10.1086/edcc.36.s3.1566543
Lin JY(1992)Rural reforms and agricultural growth in China.The American Economic Review:34-51.https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117601
Long H(2014)Land use policy in China:Introduction.Land Use Policy 40:1-5.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.03.006
Long H,Tu S,Ge D,et al.(2016)The allocation and management of critical resources in rural China under restructuring:Problems and prospects.Journal of Rural Studies 47:392-412.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.03.011
Long H,Wu X,Wang W,et al.(2008)Analysis of urban-rural land-use change during 1995-2006 and its policy dimensional driving forces in Chongqing,China.Sensors 8:681-699.https://doi.org/10.3390/s8020681
Min S,Waibel H,Huang J(2017)Smallholder participation in the land rental market in a mountainous region of Southern China:Impact of population aging,land tenure security and ethnicity.Land Use Policy 68:625-637.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.08.033
Newey WK(1987)Efficient estimation of limited dependent variable models with endogenous explanatory variables.Journal of Econometrics 36:231-250.https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(87)90001-7
Pingali P(2007)Agricultural mechanization:adoption patterns and economic impact.Handbook of Agricultural Economics 3,2779-2805.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0072(06)03054-4
Restuccia D,Rogerson R(2008)Policy distortions and aggregate productivity with heterogeneous establishments.Review of Economic Dynamics 11:707-720.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.red.2008.05.002
Restuccia D,Rogerson R(2013)Misallocation and productivity.Review of Economic Dynamics 16:1-10.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.red.2012.11.003
Shi X,Heerink N,Futian QU(2007)Choices between different off-farm employment sub-categories:An empirical analysis for Jiangxi Province,China.China Economic Review 18:438-455.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2006.08.001
Stark O,Bloom DE(1985)The new economics of labor migration.The American Economic Review 75:173-178.https://www.jstor.org/stable/1805591
Su B,Li Y,Li L,et al.(2018)How does nonfarm employment stability influence farmers'farmland transfer decisions?Implications for China’s land use policy.Land Use Policy 74:66-72.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.09.053
Xie Y,Jiang Q(2016)Land arrangements for rural-urban migrant workers in China:Findings from Jiangsu Province.Land Use Policy 50:262-267.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.10.010
Xu DD,Zhang JF,Xie FT,et al.(2015a)Influential factors in employment location selection based on―push-pull‖migration theory-a case study in Three Gorges Reservoir area in China.Journal of Mountain Science 12:1562-1581.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3371-z
Xu D,Deng X,Guo S,et al.(2018a)Sensitivity of Livelihood Strategy to Livelihood Capital:An Empirical Investigation Using Nationally Representative Survey Data from Rural China.Social Indicators Research.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-2037-6
Xu D,Cao S,Wang XX,et al.(2018b)Influences of labor migration on rural household land transfer:A case study of Sichuan Province,China.Journal of Mountain Science 15:2055-2067.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-018-4973-7
Xu D,Guo S,Xie F,et al.(2017)The impact of rural laborer migration and household structure on household land use arrangements in mountainous areas of Sichuan Province,China.Habitat International 70:72-80.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.10.009
Xu D,Zhang J,Rasul G,et al.(2015b)Household livelihood strategies and dependence on agriculture in the mountainous settlements in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area,China.Sustainability 7:4850-4869.https://doi.org/10.3390/su7054850
Xu D,Deng X,Guo S,et al.(2019)Labor migration and farmland abandonment in rural China:Empirical results and policy implications.Journal of Environmental Management232:738-750.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.136
Zhong X,Li J,Feng Y,et al.(2013)Farmland Transfer Willingness and Behavior in the Perspective of Farm Household Cognition in Guangdong Province.Resources Science 35:2082-2093.(In Chinese)
Zou B,Mishra AK,Luo B(2018)Aging population,farm succession,and farmland usage:Evidence from rural China.Land Use Policy 77:437-445.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.06.001