Groundwater monitoring of an open-pit limestone quarry: Water-rock interaction and mixing estimation within the rock layers by geochemical and statistical analyses
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摘要
Water-rock interaction and groundwater mixing are important phenomena in understanding hydrogeological systems and the stability of rock slopes especially those consisting largely of moderately watersoluble minerals like calcite. In this study, the hydrogeological and geochemical evolutions of groundwater in a limestone quarry composed of three strata: limestone layer(covering), interbedded layer under the covering layer, and slaty greenstone layer(basement) were investigated. Water-rock interaction in the open-pit limestone quarry was evaluated using PHREEQC, while hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA)and principal component analysis(PCA) were used to classify and identify water sources responsible for possible groundwater mixing within rock layers. In addition, Geochemist's Workbench was applied to estimate the mixing fractions to clarify sensitive zones that may affect rock slope stability. The results showed that the changes in Ca2+and HCO3àconcentrations of several groundwater samples along the interbedded layer could be attributed to mixing groundwater from the limestone layer and that from slaty greenstone layer. Based on the HCA and PCA results, groundwaters were classified into several types depending on their origin:(1) groundwater from the limestone layer(LO),(2) mixed groundwater flowing along the interbedded layer(e.g., groundwater samples L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4), and(3) groundwater originating from the slaty greenstone layer(SO). The mixing fractions of 41% LO: 59% SO, 64% LO: 36% SO, 43%LO: 57% SOand 25% LO: 75% SOon the normal days corresponded to groundwaters L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4,respectively, while the mixing fractions of groundwaters L-7 and L-11(61% LO: 39% SOand 93% LO: 7% SO,respectively) on rainy days became the majority of groundwater originating from the limestone layer.These indicate that groundwater along the interbedded layer significantly affected the stability of rock slopes by enlarging multi-breaking zones in the layer through calcite dissolution and inducing high water pressure, tension cracks and potential sliding plane along this layer particularly during intense rainfall episodes.
Water-rock interaction and groundwater mixing are important phenomena in understanding hydrogeological systems and the stability of rock slopes especially those consisting largely of moderately watersoluble minerals like calcite. In this study, the hydrogeological and geochemical evolutions of groundwater in a limestone quarry composed of three strata: limestone layer(covering), interbedded layer under the covering layer, and slaty greenstone layer(basement) were investigated. Water-rock interaction in the open-pit limestone quarry was evaluated using PHREEQC, while hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA)and principal component analysis(PCA) were used to classify and identify water sources responsible for possible groundwater mixing within rock layers. In addition, Geochemist's Workbench was applied to estimate the mixing fractions to clarify sensitive zones that may affect rock slope stability. The results showed that the changes in Ca2+and HCO3àconcentrations of several groundwater samples along the interbedded layer could be attributed to mixing groundwater from the limestone layer and that from slaty greenstone layer. Based on the HCA and PCA results, groundwaters were classified into several types depending on their origin:(1) groundwater from the limestone layer(LO),(2) mixed groundwater flowing along the interbedded layer(e.g., groundwater samples L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4), and(3) groundwater originating from the slaty greenstone layer(SO). The mixing fractions of 41% LO: 59% SO, 64% LO: 36% SO, 43%LO: 57% SOand 25% LO: 75% SOon the normal days corresponded to groundwaters L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4,respectively, while the mixing fractions of groundwaters L-7 and L-11(61% LO: 39% SOand 93% LO: 7% SO,respectively) on rainy days became the majority of groundwater originating from the limestone layer.These indicate that groundwater along the interbedded layer significantly affected the stability of rock slopes by enlarging multi-breaking zones in the layer through calcite dissolution and inducing high water pressure, tension cracks and potential sliding plane along this layer particularly during intense rainfall episodes.
Water-rock interaction and groundwater mixing are important phenomena in understanding hydrogeological systems and the stability of rock slopes especially those consisting largely of moderately watersoluble minerals like calcite. In this study, the hydrogeological and geochemical evolutions of groundwater in a limestone quarry composed of three strata: limestone layer(covering), interbedded layer under the covering layer, and slaty greenstone layer(basement) were investigated. Water-rock interaction in the open-pit limestone quarry was evaluated using PHREEQC, while hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA)and principal component analysis(PCA) were used to classify and identify water sources responsible for possible groundwater mixing within rock layers. In addition, Geochemist's Workbench was applied to estimate the mixing fractions to clarify sensitive zones that may affect rock slope stability. The results showed that the changes in Ca2+and HCO3àconcentrations of several groundwater samples along the interbedded layer could be attributed to mixing groundwater from the limestone layer and that from slaty greenstone layer. Based on the HCA and PCA results, groundwaters were classified into several types depending on their origin:(1) groundwater from the limestone layer(LO),(2) mixed groundwater flowing along the interbedded layer(e.g., groundwater samples L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4), and(3) groundwater originating from the slaty greenstone layer(SO). The mixing fractions of 41% LO: 59% SO, 64% LO: 36% SO, 43%LO: 57% SOand 25% LO: 75% SOon the normal days corresponded to groundwaters L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4,respectively, while the mixing fractions of groundwaters L-7 and L-11(61% LO: 39% SOand 93% LO: 7% SO,respectively) on rainy days became the majority of groundwater originating from the limestone layer.These indicate that groundwater along the interbedded layer significantly affected the stability of rock slopes by enlarging multi-breaking zones in the layer through calcite dissolution and inducing high water pressure, tension cracks and potential sliding plane along this layer particularly during intense rainfall episodes.
引文
[1]Appelo CAJ,Postma D.Geochemistry,groundwater and pollution.London:A.A.Balkema Publishers;2005.
[2]Belkhiri L,Mouni L,Tiri A.Water-rock interaction and geochemistry of groundwater from the Ain Azel aquifer.Algeria Environ Geochem Health2012;34(1):1-13.
[3]Domenico PA.Concepts and models in groundwater hydrology.New York:McGraw-Hill;1972.
[4]Toth J.The role of regional gravity flow in the chemical and thermal evolution of groundwater.In:Proceedings of the first Canadian/American conference on hydrogeology,Banff,Alta;1984.
[5]Stumm W,Morgan JJ.Aquatic chemistry:an introduction emphasizing chemical equilibria in natural waters.New York:John Wiley&Sons,Inc.;1981.
[6]Peyraube N,Lastennet R,Denis A,Malaurent P,Villanueva JD.Interpreting CO2-SIcrelationship to estimate CO2baseline in limestone aquifers.Environ Earth Sci 2014;72:4207-15.
[7]Love D,Hallbauer D,Amos A,Hranova R.Factor analysis as a tool in groundwater quality management:two southern African case studies.Phys Chem Earth 2004;29(15-18):1135-43.
[8]Farnham IM,Johannesson KH,Singh AK,Hodge VF,Stetzenbach KJ.Factor analytical approaches for evaluating groundwater trace element chemistry data.Anal Chim Acta 2003;490(1-2):123-38.
[9]Mahlknecht J,Steinich B,Navarro de Léon I.Groundwater chemistry and mass transfers in the independence aquifer,central Mexico,by using multivariate statistics and mass-balance models.Environ Geol 2003;45(6):781-95.
[10]Kim JH,Kim RH,Lee J,Cheong TJ,Yum BW,Chang HW.Multivariate statistical analysis to identify the major factors governing groundwater quality in the coastal area of Kimje,South Korea.Hydrol Process 2005;19(6):1261-76.
[11]Reghunath R,Murthy TRS,Raghavan BR.The utility of multivariate statistical techniques in hydrogeochemical studies:an example from Karnataka,India.Water Res 2002;36(10):2437-42.
[12]Zhao L,Ren T,Wang N.Groundwater impact of open cut coal mine and an assessment methodology:a case study in NSW.Int J Min Sci Technol 2017;27(5):861-6.
[13]Yamaguchi U,Shimotani T.A case study of slope failure in a limestone quarry.Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 1986;23(1):95-104.
[14]Shen B,Poulsen B,Luo X,Qin J,Thiruvenkatachari R,Duan Y.Remediation and monitoring of abandoned mines.Int J Min Sci Technol 2017;27(5):803-11.
[15]Ulusay R,Ekmekci M,Tuncay E,Hasancebi N.Improvement of slope stability based on integrated geotechnical evaluations and hydrogeological conceptualisation at a lignite open pit.Eng Geol 2014;181:261-80.
[16]Kondo M,Nakatani K,Mikami K.Stabilization works for the final slope and procedures for validation of their effects in the Une limestone quarry.In:Proceedings of the Mining and Materials Processing Institute of Japan,Morioka;2016,p.1112.
[17]Ozawa K,Aoyama H,Kondo M,Nakatani K.Analysis on the final slope behaviors by rainfall and consideration on the effects of stabilizing measures.In:Proceedings of the Mining and Materials Processing Institute of Japan,Morioka;2016,p.1113.
[18]Hayashi S,Iijima S,Ishii I,Nakajima T,Sawaguchi H,Tanaka H.Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic formations in the southwestern Ashio Mountains.Bull Gunma Prefect Mus Hist 1990;11:1-34.
[19]Committee on the Long-Wall Rock Slope.Research on the stability of the longwall rock slope of limestone quarries in Japan.Min Mater Process Inst Japan;2013.
[20]Eang KE,Igarashi T,Fujinaga R,Kondo M,Tabelin CB.Groundwater monitoring of an open-pit limestone quarry:groundwater characteristics,evolution and their connections to rock slopes.Environ Monit Assess 2018;190(193):1-15.
[21]Cloutier V.Origin and geochemical evolution of groundwater in the Paleozoic Basses-Laurentides sedimentary rock aquifer system,St.Lawrence Lowlands,Québec,Canada.Québec,Canada:INRS-Eau,Terre&Environnement;2004.
[22]Davis JC.Statistics and data analysis in geology.New York:John Wiley&Sons,Inc.;1986.
[23]Güler C,Thyne GD,McCray JE,Turner KA.Evaluation of graphical and multivariate statistical methods for classification of water chemistry data.Hydrogeol J 2002;10(4):455-74.
[24]Cloutier V,Lefebvre R,Therrien R,Savard MM.Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system.J Hydrol 2008;353(3-4):294-313.
[25]Jiang Y,Guo H,Jia Y,Cao Y,Hu C.Principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analyses of arsenic groundwater geochemistry in the Hetao basin,Inner Mongolia.Chem Erde 2015;75(2):197-205.
[26]Davis JC,Sampson RJ.Statistics and data analysis in geology.New York:Wiley;2002.
[27]Hotelling H.Analysis of a complex of statistical variables into principal components.J Educ Psychol 1933;24(6):417-41.
[28]Brown CE.Applied multivariate statistics in geohydrology and related sciences.Berlin:Springer;1998.
[29]Jolliffe IT.Principal component analysis.New York:Springer;2002.
[30]Reilly TE,Plummer LN,Phillips PJ,Busenberg E.The use of simulation and multiple environmental tracers to quantify groundwater flow in a shallow aquifer.Water Resour Res 1994;30(2):421-33.
[31]Merkel BJ,Planer-Friedrich B.Groundwater geochemistry:a practical guide to modeling of natural and contaminated aquatic systems.Berlin:Springer;2008.
[32]Batoit C,Emblanch C,Blavoux B,Simler R,Daniel M.Organic matter in karstic aquifers:A potential tracer in the carbon cycle.A small-scale laboratory model approach.IAHS Pub 2000;262:459-63.
[33]Wigley TML,Plummer LN.Mixing of carbonate waters.Geochim Cosmochim Acta 1976;40(9):989-95.
[34]Fitts CR.Groundwater science.San Diego:Elsevier Press;2002.
[35]Whitaker FF,Smart PL.Groundwater circulation and geochemistry of a karstified bank-marginal fracture system,South Andros Island,Bahamas.J Hydrol 1997;197(1-4):293-315.
[36]Dong JJ,Tu CH,Lee WR,Jheng YJ.Effects of hydraulic conductivity/strength anisotropy on the stability of stratified,poorly cemented rock slopes.Comput Geotech 2012;40:147-59.
[37]Záruba Q,Mencl V.Engineering geology:developments in geotechnical engineering.New York:American Elsevier Publishing Company,Inc.;1976.
[2]Belkhiri L,Mouni L,Tiri A.Water-rock interaction and geochemistry of groundwater from the Ain Azel aquifer.Algeria Environ Geochem Health2012;34(1):1-13.
[3]Domenico PA.Concepts and models in groundwater hydrology.New York:McGraw-Hill;1972.
[4]Toth J.The role of regional gravity flow in the chemical and thermal evolution of groundwater.In:Proceedings of the first Canadian/American conference on hydrogeology,Banff,Alta;1984.
[5]Stumm W,Morgan JJ.Aquatic chemistry:an introduction emphasizing chemical equilibria in natural waters.New York:John Wiley&Sons,Inc.;1981.
[6]Peyraube N,Lastennet R,Denis A,Malaurent P,Villanueva JD.Interpreting CO2-SIcrelationship to estimate CO2baseline in limestone aquifers.Environ Earth Sci 2014;72:4207-15.
[7]Love D,Hallbauer D,Amos A,Hranova R.Factor analysis as a tool in groundwater quality management:two southern African case studies.Phys Chem Earth 2004;29(15-18):1135-43.
[8]Farnham IM,Johannesson KH,Singh AK,Hodge VF,Stetzenbach KJ.Factor analytical approaches for evaluating groundwater trace element chemistry data.Anal Chim Acta 2003;490(1-2):123-38.
[9]Mahlknecht J,Steinich B,Navarro de Léon I.Groundwater chemistry and mass transfers in the independence aquifer,central Mexico,by using multivariate statistics and mass-balance models.Environ Geol 2003;45(6):781-95.
[10]Kim JH,Kim RH,Lee J,Cheong TJ,Yum BW,Chang HW.Multivariate statistical analysis to identify the major factors governing groundwater quality in the coastal area of Kimje,South Korea.Hydrol Process 2005;19(6):1261-76.
[11]Reghunath R,Murthy TRS,Raghavan BR.The utility of multivariate statistical techniques in hydrogeochemical studies:an example from Karnataka,India.Water Res 2002;36(10):2437-42.
[12]Zhao L,Ren T,Wang N.Groundwater impact of open cut coal mine and an assessment methodology:a case study in NSW.Int J Min Sci Technol 2017;27(5):861-6.
[13]Yamaguchi U,Shimotani T.A case study of slope failure in a limestone quarry.Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 1986;23(1):95-104.
[14]Shen B,Poulsen B,Luo X,Qin J,Thiruvenkatachari R,Duan Y.Remediation and monitoring of abandoned mines.Int J Min Sci Technol 2017;27(5):803-11.
[15]Ulusay R,Ekmekci M,Tuncay E,Hasancebi N.Improvement of slope stability based on integrated geotechnical evaluations and hydrogeological conceptualisation at a lignite open pit.Eng Geol 2014;181:261-80.
[16]Kondo M,Nakatani K,Mikami K.Stabilization works for the final slope and procedures for validation of their effects in the Une limestone quarry.In:Proceedings of the Mining and Materials Processing Institute of Japan,Morioka;2016,p.1112.
[17]Ozawa K,Aoyama H,Kondo M,Nakatani K.Analysis on the final slope behaviors by rainfall and consideration on the effects of stabilizing measures.In:Proceedings of the Mining and Materials Processing Institute of Japan,Morioka;2016,p.1113.
[18]Hayashi S,Iijima S,Ishii I,Nakajima T,Sawaguchi H,Tanaka H.Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic formations in the southwestern Ashio Mountains.Bull Gunma Prefect Mus Hist 1990;11:1-34.
[19]Committee on the Long-Wall Rock Slope.Research on the stability of the longwall rock slope of limestone quarries in Japan.Min Mater Process Inst Japan;2013.
[20]Eang KE,Igarashi T,Fujinaga R,Kondo M,Tabelin CB.Groundwater monitoring of an open-pit limestone quarry:groundwater characteristics,evolution and their connections to rock slopes.Environ Monit Assess 2018;190(193):1-15.
[21]Cloutier V.Origin and geochemical evolution of groundwater in the Paleozoic Basses-Laurentides sedimentary rock aquifer system,St.Lawrence Lowlands,Québec,Canada.Québec,Canada:INRS-Eau,Terre&Environnement;2004.
[22]Davis JC.Statistics and data analysis in geology.New York:John Wiley&Sons,Inc.;1986.
[23]Güler C,Thyne GD,McCray JE,Turner KA.Evaluation of graphical and multivariate statistical methods for classification of water chemistry data.Hydrogeol J 2002;10(4):455-74.
[24]Cloutier V,Lefebvre R,Therrien R,Savard MM.Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system.J Hydrol 2008;353(3-4):294-313.
[25]Jiang Y,Guo H,Jia Y,Cao Y,Hu C.Principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analyses of arsenic groundwater geochemistry in the Hetao basin,Inner Mongolia.Chem Erde 2015;75(2):197-205.
[26]Davis JC,Sampson RJ.Statistics and data analysis in geology.New York:Wiley;2002.
[27]Hotelling H.Analysis of a complex of statistical variables into principal components.J Educ Psychol 1933;24(6):417-41.
[28]Brown CE.Applied multivariate statistics in geohydrology and related sciences.Berlin:Springer;1998.
[29]Jolliffe IT.Principal component analysis.New York:Springer;2002.
[30]Reilly TE,Plummer LN,Phillips PJ,Busenberg E.The use of simulation and multiple environmental tracers to quantify groundwater flow in a shallow aquifer.Water Resour Res 1994;30(2):421-33.
[31]Merkel BJ,Planer-Friedrich B.Groundwater geochemistry:a practical guide to modeling of natural and contaminated aquatic systems.Berlin:Springer;2008.
[32]Batoit C,Emblanch C,Blavoux B,Simler R,Daniel M.Organic matter in karstic aquifers:A potential tracer in the carbon cycle.A small-scale laboratory model approach.IAHS Pub 2000;262:459-63.
[33]Wigley TML,Plummer LN.Mixing of carbonate waters.Geochim Cosmochim Acta 1976;40(9):989-95.
[34]Fitts CR.Groundwater science.San Diego:Elsevier Press;2002.
[35]Whitaker FF,Smart PL.Groundwater circulation and geochemistry of a karstified bank-marginal fracture system,South Andros Island,Bahamas.J Hydrol 1997;197(1-4):293-315.
[36]Dong JJ,Tu CH,Lee WR,Jheng YJ.Effects of hydraulic conductivity/strength anisotropy on the stability of stratified,poorly cemented rock slopes.Comput Geotech 2012;40:147-59.
[37]Záruba Q,Mencl V.Engineering geology:developments in geotechnical engineering.New York:American Elsevier Publishing Company,Inc.;1976.
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