Rockfall seismic features analysis based on in situ tests:frequency, amplitude, and duration
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摘要
In the seismic event classification,determining the seismic features of rockfall is significantly important for the automatic classification of seismic events because of the huge amount of raw data recorded by seismic stations in continuous monitoring. At the same time, the rockfall seismic features are still not completely understood.This study concentrates on the rockfall frequency content, amplitude(ground velocity), seismic waveform and duration analysis, of an artificial rockfall test at Torgiovannetto(a former quarry in Central Italy). A total of 90 blocks were released in the test, and their seismic signals and moving trajectories were recorded by four tri-axial seismic stations and four cameras, respectively. In the analysis processing,all the artificial rockfall signal traces were cut separately and the seismic features were extracted individually and automatically. In this study, the relationships between a) frequency content and impacted materials, b) frequency content and the distance between block releasing position and seismic station(source-receiver distance) were discussed. As a result, we found that the frequency content of rockfall focuses on 10-60 Hz and 80-90 Hz within a source-receiver distance of 200 m, and it is well correlated with impacted material and source-receiver distance. To evaluate the difference between earthquake and rockfall, 23 clear earthquake signals recorded in a seven month-long continuous seismic monitoring, carried out with the four seismic stations, were picked out, according to the Italian national earthquakes database(INGV). On these traces we performed the same analysis as in the artificial rockfall traces, and two parameters were defined to separate rockfall events from earthquake noise. The first one, the amplitude ratio, is related to the amplitude variation of rockfall between two stations and is greater than that of earthquakes, because of the higher attenuation occurring for rockfall events, which consists in high frequencies whereas for earthquakes it consists in low frequencies. The other parameter, the shape of waveform of signal trace, showed a significant difference between rockfall and earthquake and that could be a complementary feature to discriminate between both. This analysis of artificial rockfall is a first step helpful to understand the seismic characteristics of rockfall, and useful for rockfall seismic events classification in seismic monitoring of slope.
In the seismic event classification,determining the seismic features of rockfall is significantly important for the automatic classification of seismic events because of the huge amount of raw data recorded by seismic stations in continuous monitoring. At the same time, the rockfall seismic features are still not completely understood.This study concentrates on the rockfall frequency content, amplitude(ground velocity), seismic waveform and duration analysis, of an artificial rockfall test at Torgiovannetto(a former quarry in Central Italy). A total of 90 blocks were released in the test, and their seismic signals and moving trajectories were recorded by four tri-axial seismic stations and four cameras, respectively. In the analysis processing,all the artificial rockfall signal traces were cut separately and the seismic features were extracted individually and automatically. In this study, the relationships between a) frequency content and impacted materials, b) frequency content and the distance between block releasing position and seismic station(source-receiver distance) were discussed. As a result, we found that the frequency content of rockfall focuses on 10-60 Hz and 80-90 Hz within a source-receiver distance of 200 m, and it is well correlated with impacted material and source-receiver distance. To evaluate the difference between earthquake and rockfall, 23 clear earthquake signals recorded in a seven month-long continuous seismic monitoring, carried out with the four seismic stations, were picked out, according to the Italian national earthquakes database(INGV). On these traces we performed the same analysis as in the artificial rockfall traces, and two parameters were defined to separate rockfall events from earthquake noise. The first one, the amplitude ratio, is related to the amplitude variation of rockfall between two stations and is greater than that of earthquakes, because of the higher attenuation occurring for rockfall events, which consists in high frequencies whereas for earthquakes it consists in low frequencies. The other parameter, the shape of waveform of signal trace, showed a significant difference between rockfall and earthquake and that could be a complementary feature to discriminate between both. This analysis of artificial rockfall is a first step helpful to understand the seismic characteristics of rockfall, and useful for rockfall seismic events classification in seismic monitoring of slope.
In the seismic event classification,determining the seismic features of rockfall is significantly important for the automatic classification of seismic events because of the huge amount of raw data recorded by seismic stations in continuous monitoring. At the same time, the rockfall seismic features are still not completely understood.This study concentrates on the rockfall frequency content, amplitude(ground velocity), seismic waveform and duration analysis, of an artificial rockfall test at Torgiovannetto(a former quarry in Central Italy). A total of 90 blocks were released in the test, and their seismic signals and moving trajectories were recorded by four tri-axial seismic stations and four cameras, respectively. In the analysis processing,all the artificial rockfall signal traces were cut separately and the seismic features were extracted individually and automatically. In this study, the relationships between a) frequency content and impacted materials, b) frequency content and the distance between block releasing position and seismic station(source-receiver distance) were discussed. As a result, we found that the frequency content of rockfall focuses on 10-60 Hz and 80-90 Hz within a source-receiver distance of 200 m, and it is well correlated with impacted material and source-receiver distance. To evaluate the difference between earthquake and rockfall, 23 clear earthquake signals recorded in a seven month-long continuous seismic monitoring, carried out with the four seismic stations, were picked out, according to the Italian national earthquakes database(INGV). On these traces we performed the same analysis as in the artificial rockfall traces, and two parameters were defined to separate rockfall events from earthquake noise. The first one, the amplitude ratio, is related to the amplitude variation of rockfall between two stations and is greater than that of earthquakes, because of the higher attenuation occurring for rockfall events, which consists in high frequencies whereas for earthquakes it consists in low frequencies. The other parameter, the shape of waveform of signal trace, showed a significant difference between rockfall and earthquake and that could be a complementary feature to discriminate between both. This analysis of artificial rockfall is a first step helpful to understand the seismic characteristics of rockfall, and useful for rockfall seismic events classification in seismic monitoring of slope.
引文
Allen R(1982)Automatic phase pickers:their present use and future prospects.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 72(6):225-242
Allmann BP,Shearer PM,Hauksson E(2008)Spectral discrimination between quarry blasts and earthquakes in Southern California.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 98(4):2073-2079.https://doi.org/10.1785/0120070215
Amitrano D,Grasso JR,Senfaute G(2005)Seismic precursory patterns before a cliff collapse and critical point phenomena.Geophysical Research Letters 32(8):L08314.https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL022270
Antolini F,Barla M,Gigli G,et al.(2016)Combined finitediscrete numerical modeling of runout of the Torgiovannetto di Assisi rockslide in central Italy.International Journal of Geomechanics 16(6):04016019.https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000646
Arosio D,Longoni L,Papini M,et al.(2009)Towards rockfall forecasting through observing deformations and listening to microseismic emissions.Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 9(4):1119-1131.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-9-1119-2009
Arosio D,Longoni L,Papini M,et al.(2018)Analysis of microseismic signals collected on an unstable rock face in the Italian Prealps.Geophysical Journal International 213(1):475-488.https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggy010
Atkinson PM,Massari R(1998)Generalised linear modelling of susceptibility to landsliding in the Central Apennines,Italy.Computer&Geosciences 24:373-385.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-3004(97)00117-9
Beccar-Varela MP,Gonzalez-Huizar H,Mariani MC,et al.(2016)Use of wavelets techniques to discriminate between explosions and natural earthquakes.Physica A:Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 457:42-51.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2016.03.077
Benítez MC,Ramírez J,Segura JC,et al.(2007)Continuous HMM-based seismic-event classification at Deception Island,Antarctica.IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 45(1):138-146.https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2006.882264
Burtin A,Bollinger L,Cattin R,et al.(2009)Spatiotemporal sequence of Himalayan debris flow from analysis of high‐frequency seismic noise.Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface 114(F4):F04009.https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JF001198
Burtin A,Hovius N,Milodowski DT,et al.(2013)Continuous catchment-scale monitoring of geomorphic processes with a2-D seismological array.Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface 118(3):1956-1974.https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrf.20137
Burtin A,Hovius N,McArdell BW,et al.(2014)Seismic constraints on dynamic links between geomorphic processes and routing of sediment in a steep mountain catchment.Earth Surface Dynamics 2(1):21-33.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-21-2014
Burtin A,Hovius N,Turowski JM(2016)Seismic monitoring of torrential and fluvial processes.Earth Surface Dynamics 4(2):285-307.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-285-2016
Daubechies I(1992)Ten lectures on wavelets.Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.p 357.
Deere DU(1968)Geological considerations.In:Stagg KG,Zienkiewicz OC(eds),Rock mechanics in engineering practice,Chapter 1.Wiley,New York.pp 1-20
Dietze M,Mohadjer S,Turowski JM,et al.(2017a)Seismic monitoring of small alpine rockfalls-validity,precision and limitations.Earth Surface Dynamics 5(4):653-668.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-653-2017
Dietze M,Turowski JM,Cook KL,et al.(2017b)Spatiotemporal patterns,triggers and anatomies of seismically detected rockfalls.Earth Surface Dynamics 5:757-779.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-757-2017
Farin M,Mangeney A,Toussaint R,et al.(2015)Characterization of rockfalls from seismic signal:Insights from laboratory experiments.Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 120(10):7102-7137.https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB012331
Gigli G,Morelli S,Fornera S,et al.(2014a)Terrestrial laser scanner and geomechanical surveys for the rapid evaluation of rock fall susceptibility scenarios.Landslides 11(1):1-14.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-012-0374-0
Gigli G,Intrieri E,Lombardi L,et al.(2014b)Event scenario analysis for the design of rockslide countermeasures.Journal of Mountain Science 6:1521-1530.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3164-4
Goldstein P,Dodge D,Firpoand M,et al.(2003)Signal processing and analysis tools for seismologists and engineers,Invited contribution to”The IASPEI International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology”.
Goldstein P,Snoke A(2005)SAC availability for the IRISCommunity,Electronic Newsletter,Incorporated Institutions for Seismology,Data Management Center.
Gracchi T,Lotti A,Saccorotti G,et al.(2017)A method for locating rockfall impacts using signals recorded by a microseismic network.Geoenvironmental Disasters 4:26.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-017-0091-z
Graziani A,Marsella M,Rotonda T,et al.(2009)Study of a rock slide in a limestone formation with clay interbeds.Proceeding International Conference on Rock Joints and Jointed Rock Masses,Tucson,Arizona,USA 7th-8th January 2009.
Hibert C,Mangeney A,Grandjean G,et al.(2011)Slope instabilities in Dolomieu crater,Réunion Island:From seismic signals to rockfall characteristics.Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface 116(F4):F04032.https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002038
Hibert C,Malet JP,Bourrier F,et al.(2017a)Single-block rockfall dynamics inferred from seismic signal analysis.Earth Surface Dynamics 5(2):283-292.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-283-2017
Hibert C,Mangeney A,Grandjean G,et al.(2017b)Spatiotemporal evolution of rockfall activity from 2007 to 2011 at the Piton de la Fournaise volcano inferred from seismic data.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 333-334:36-52.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.01.007
Hibert C,Provost F,Malet JP,et al.(2017c)Automatic identification of rockfalls and volcano-tectonic earthquakes at the Piton de la Fournaise volcano using a Random Forest algorithm.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research340:130-142.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.04.015
Intrieri E,Gigli G,Mugnai F,et al.(2012)Design and implementation of a landslide early warning system.Engineering Geology 147-148:124-136.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.07.017
Joswig M(1995)Automated classification of local earthquake data in the BUG small array.Geophysical Journal International 120(2):262-286.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1995.tb01818.x
Kim SG,Park YC,Kim WY(1998)Discrimination of small earthquakes and artificial explosions in the Korean Peninsula using Pg/Lg ratios.Geophysical Journal International 134(1):267-276.https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00575.x
Laasri EHA,Akhouayri ES,Agliz D,et al.(2015)A fuzzy expert system for automatic seismic signal classification.Expert Systems with Applications 42(3):1013-1027.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.08.023
Lacroix P,Helmstetter A(2011)Location of seismic signals associated with microearthquakes and rockfalls on the Séchilienne landslide,French Alps.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 101(1):341-353.https://doi.org/10.1785/0120100110
Lacroix P,Grasso JR,Roulle J,et al.(2012)Monitoring of snow avalanches using a seismic array:Location,speed estimation,and relationships to meteorological variables.Journal of Geophysical Research:Earth Surface 117:F01034.https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002106
Langer H,Falsaperla S,Powell T,et al.(2006)Automatic classification and a-posteriori analysis of seismic event identification at Soufriere Hills volcano,Montserrat.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 153(1-2):1-10.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.08.012
Lara-Cueva RA,Benítez DS,Carrera EV,et al.(2016)Feature selection of seismic waveforms for long period event detection at Cotopaxi Volcano.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal316:34-49.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.02.022
Lenti L,Martino S,Paciello A,et al.(2012)Microseismicity within a karstified rock mass due to cracks and collapses as a tool for risk management.Natural Hazards 64(1):359-379.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0245-y
Levy C,Mangeney A,Bonilla F,et al.(2015)Friction weakening in granular flows deduced from seismic records at the Soufrière Hills Volcano,Montserrat.Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 120(11):7536-7557.https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB012151
Lotti A,Saccorotti G,Fiaschi A,et al.(2014)Seismic monitoring of rockslide:the Torgiovannetto quarry(Central Apennines,Italy).In:Lollino G,et al.(eds),Engineering Geology for Society and Territory-Vol.2,Springer International Publishing,Switzerland.pp 1537-1540.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09057-3_272
Lotti A,Pazzi V,Saccorotti G,et al.(2018)HVSR analysis of rockslide seismic signals to assess the subsoil conditions and the site seismic response.International Journal of Geophysics:article ID 9383189.https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9383189
Manconi A,Picozzi M,Coviello V,et al.(2016)Real‐time detection,location,and characterization of rockslides using broadband regional seismic networks.Geophysical Research Letters 43(13):6960-6967.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069572
McCarroll D,Shakesby RA,Matthews JA(1998)Spatial and temporal patterns of late Holocene rockfall activity on a Norwegian talus slope:a lichenometric and simulationmodeling approach.Arctic and Alpine Research 30(1):51-60.https://doi.org/10.1080/00040851.1998.12002875
Pazzi V,Tanteri L,Bicocchi G,et al.(2017)H/V measurements as an effective tool for the reliable detection of landslide slip surfaces:case studies of Castagnola(La Spezia,Italy)and Roccalbegna(Grosseto,Italy).Phys.Chem.Earth 98:136-153.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2016.10.014
Provost F,Hibert C,Malet JP(2017)Automatic classification of endogenous landslide seismicity using the Random Forest supervised classifier.Geophysical Research Letters 44(1):113-120.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070709
Senfaute G,Duperret A,Lawrence JA(2009)Micro-seismic precursory cracks prior to rock-fall on coastal chalk cliffs:a case study at Mesnil-Val,Normandie,NW France.Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 9(5):1625-1641.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-9-1625-2009
Trnkoczy A(1998)Understanding and setting STA/LTA trigger algorithm parameters for the K2.Application Note 41:1-30.
Walter M,Arnhardt C,Joswig M(2012a)Seismic monitoring of rockfalls,slide quakes,and fissure development at the SuperSauze mudslide,French Alps.Engineering Geology 128:12-22.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.11.002
Walter M,Joswig M(2012b)Seismic monitoring of precursory fracture signals from a destructive rockfall in the Vorarlberg Alps,Austria.Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences12(11):3545-3555.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-3545-2012
Allmann BP,Shearer PM,Hauksson E(2008)Spectral discrimination between quarry blasts and earthquakes in Southern California.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 98(4):2073-2079.https://doi.org/10.1785/0120070215
Amitrano D,Grasso JR,Senfaute G(2005)Seismic precursory patterns before a cliff collapse and critical point phenomena.Geophysical Research Letters 32(8):L08314.https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL022270
Antolini F,Barla M,Gigli G,et al.(2016)Combined finitediscrete numerical modeling of runout of the Torgiovannetto di Assisi rockslide in central Italy.International Journal of Geomechanics 16(6):04016019.https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000646
Arosio D,Longoni L,Papini M,et al.(2009)Towards rockfall forecasting through observing deformations and listening to microseismic emissions.Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 9(4):1119-1131.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-9-1119-2009
Arosio D,Longoni L,Papini M,et al.(2018)Analysis of microseismic signals collected on an unstable rock face in the Italian Prealps.Geophysical Journal International 213(1):475-488.https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggy010
Atkinson PM,Massari R(1998)Generalised linear modelling of susceptibility to landsliding in the Central Apennines,Italy.Computer&Geosciences 24:373-385.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-3004(97)00117-9
Beccar-Varela MP,Gonzalez-Huizar H,Mariani MC,et al.(2016)Use of wavelets techniques to discriminate between explosions and natural earthquakes.Physica A:Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 457:42-51.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2016.03.077
Benítez MC,Ramírez J,Segura JC,et al.(2007)Continuous HMM-based seismic-event classification at Deception Island,Antarctica.IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 45(1):138-146.https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2006.882264
Burtin A,Bollinger L,Cattin R,et al.(2009)Spatiotemporal sequence of Himalayan debris flow from analysis of high‐frequency seismic noise.Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface 114(F4):F04009.https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JF001198
Burtin A,Hovius N,Milodowski DT,et al.(2013)Continuous catchment-scale monitoring of geomorphic processes with a2-D seismological array.Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface 118(3):1956-1974.https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrf.20137
Burtin A,Hovius N,McArdell BW,et al.(2014)Seismic constraints on dynamic links between geomorphic processes and routing of sediment in a steep mountain catchment.Earth Surface Dynamics 2(1):21-33.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-21-2014
Burtin A,Hovius N,Turowski JM(2016)Seismic monitoring of torrential and fluvial processes.Earth Surface Dynamics 4(2):285-307.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-285-2016
Daubechies I(1992)Ten lectures on wavelets.Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.p 357.
Deere DU(1968)Geological considerations.In:Stagg KG,Zienkiewicz OC(eds),Rock mechanics in engineering practice,Chapter 1.Wiley,New York.pp 1-20
Dietze M,Mohadjer S,Turowski JM,et al.(2017a)Seismic monitoring of small alpine rockfalls-validity,precision and limitations.Earth Surface Dynamics 5(4):653-668.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-653-2017
Dietze M,Turowski JM,Cook KL,et al.(2017b)Spatiotemporal patterns,triggers and anatomies of seismically detected rockfalls.Earth Surface Dynamics 5:757-779.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-757-2017
Farin M,Mangeney A,Toussaint R,et al.(2015)Characterization of rockfalls from seismic signal:Insights from laboratory experiments.Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 120(10):7102-7137.https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB012331
Gigli G,Morelli S,Fornera S,et al.(2014a)Terrestrial laser scanner and geomechanical surveys for the rapid evaluation of rock fall susceptibility scenarios.Landslides 11(1):1-14.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-012-0374-0
Gigli G,Intrieri E,Lombardi L,et al.(2014b)Event scenario analysis for the design of rockslide countermeasures.Journal of Mountain Science 6:1521-1530.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3164-4
Goldstein P,Dodge D,Firpoand M,et al.(2003)Signal processing and analysis tools for seismologists and engineers,Invited contribution to”The IASPEI International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology”.
Goldstein P,Snoke A(2005)SAC availability for the IRISCommunity,Electronic Newsletter,Incorporated Institutions for Seismology,Data Management Center.
Gracchi T,Lotti A,Saccorotti G,et al.(2017)A method for locating rockfall impacts using signals recorded by a microseismic network.Geoenvironmental Disasters 4:26.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-017-0091-z
Graziani A,Marsella M,Rotonda T,et al.(2009)Study of a rock slide in a limestone formation with clay interbeds.Proceeding International Conference on Rock Joints and Jointed Rock Masses,Tucson,Arizona,USA 7th-8th January 2009.
Hibert C,Mangeney A,Grandjean G,et al.(2011)Slope instabilities in Dolomieu crater,Réunion Island:From seismic signals to rockfall characteristics.Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface 116(F4):F04032.https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002038
Hibert C,Malet JP,Bourrier F,et al.(2017a)Single-block rockfall dynamics inferred from seismic signal analysis.Earth Surface Dynamics 5(2):283-292.https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-283-2017
Hibert C,Mangeney A,Grandjean G,et al.(2017b)Spatiotemporal evolution of rockfall activity from 2007 to 2011 at the Piton de la Fournaise volcano inferred from seismic data.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 333-334:36-52.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.01.007
Hibert C,Provost F,Malet JP,et al.(2017c)Automatic identification of rockfalls and volcano-tectonic earthquakes at the Piton de la Fournaise volcano using a Random Forest algorithm.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research340:130-142.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.04.015
Intrieri E,Gigli G,Mugnai F,et al.(2012)Design and implementation of a landslide early warning system.Engineering Geology 147-148:124-136.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.07.017
Joswig M(1995)Automated classification of local earthquake data in the BUG small array.Geophysical Journal International 120(2):262-286.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1995.tb01818.x
Kim SG,Park YC,Kim WY(1998)Discrimination of small earthquakes and artificial explosions in the Korean Peninsula using Pg/Lg ratios.Geophysical Journal International 134(1):267-276.https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00575.x
Laasri EHA,Akhouayri ES,Agliz D,et al.(2015)A fuzzy expert system for automatic seismic signal classification.Expert Systems with Applications 42(3):1013-1027.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.08.023
Lacroix P,Helmstetter A(2011)Location of seismic signals associated with microearthquakes and rockfalls on the Séchilienne landslide,French Alps.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 101(1):341-353.https://doi.org/10.1785/0120100110
Lacroix P,Grasso JR,Roulle J,et al.(2012)Monitoring of snow avalanches using a seismic array:Location,speed estimation,and relationships to meteorological variables.Journal of Geophysical Research:Earth Surface 117:F01034.https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002106
Langer H,Falsaperla S,Powell T,et al.(2006)Automatic classification and a-posteriori analysis of seismic event identification at Soufriere Hills volcano,Montserrat.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 153(1-2):1-10.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.08.012
Lara-Cueva RA,Benítez DS,Carrera EV,et al.(2016)Feature selection of seismic waveforms for long period event detection at Cotopaxi Volcano.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal316:34-49.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.02.022
Lenti L,Martino S,Paciello A,et al.(2012)Microseismicity within a karstified rock mass due to cracks and collapses as a tool for risk management.Natural Hazards 64(1):359-379.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0245-y
Levy C,Mangeney A,Bonilla F,et al.(2015)Friction weakening in granular flows deduced from seismic records at the Soufrière Hills Volcano,Montserrat.Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 120(11):7536-7557.https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB012151
Lotti A,Saccorotti G,Fiaschi A,et al.(2014)Seismic monitoring of rockslide:the Torgiovannetto quarry(Central Apennines,Italy).In:Lollino G,et al.(eds),Engineering Geology for Society and Territory-Vol.2,Springer International Publishing,Switzerland.pp 1537-1540.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09057-3_272
Lotti A,Pazzi V,Saccorotti G,et al.(2018)HVSR analysis of rockslide seismic signals to assess the subsoil conditions and the site seismic response.International Journal of Geophysics:article ID 9383189.https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9383189
Manconi A,Picozzi M,Coviello V,et al.(2016)Real‐time detection,location,and characterization of rockslides using broadband regional seismic networks.Geophysical Research Letters 43(13):6960-6967.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069572
McCarroll D,Shakesby RA,Matthews JA(1998)Spatial and temporal patterns of late Holocene rockfall activity on a Norwegian talus slope:a lichenometric and simulationmodeling approach.Arctic and Alpine Research 30(1):51-60.https://doi.org/10.1080/00040851.1998.12002875
Pazzi V,Tanteri L,Bicocchi G,et al.(2017)H/V measurements as an effective tool for the reliable detection of landslide slip surfaces:case studies of Castagnola(La Spezia,Italy)and Roccalbegna(Grosseto,Italy).Phys.Chem.Earth 98:136-153.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2016.10.014
Provost F,Hibert C,Malet JP(2017)Automatic classification of endogenous landslide seismicity using the Random Forest supervised classifier.Geophysical Research Letters 44(1):113-120.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070709
Senfaute G,Duperret A,Lawrence JA(2009)Micro-seismic precursory cracks prior to rock-fall on coastal chalk cliffs:a case study at Mesnil-Val,Normandie,NW France.Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 9(5):1625-1641.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-9-1625-2009
Trnkoczy A(1998)Understanding and setting STA/LTA trigger algorithm parameters for the K2.Application Note 41:1-30.
Walter M,Arnhardt C,Joswig M(2012a)Seismic monitoring of rockfalls,slide quakes,and fissure development at the SuperSauze mudslide,French Alps.Engineering Geology 128:12-22.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.11.002
Walter M,Joswig M(2012b)Seismic monitoring of precursory fracture signals from a destructive rockfall in the Vorarlberg Alps,Austria.Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences12(11):3545-3555.https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-3545-2012