Adjusting precipitation measurements from the TRwS204 automatic weighing gauge in the Qilian Mountains, China
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摘要
With the popularity of the automatic precipitation gauges in national weather stations,testing their performance and adjusting their measurements are top priorities. Additionally,because different climatic conditions may have different effects on the performance of the precipitation gauges, it is also necessary to test the gauges in different areas. This study mainly analyzed precipitation measurements from the single-Altershielded TRwS204 automatic weighing gauge(TRwS_(SA)) relative to the adjusted manual measurements(reference precipitation) from the Chinese standard precipitation gauge in a doublefence wind shield(CSPG_(DF)) in the Hulu watershed in the Qilian Mountains, China. The measurements were compared over the period from August 2014 to July2017, and the transfer function derived from the work by Kochendorfer et al.(2017 a) for correcting windinduced losses was applied to the TRwS_(SA) measurements. The results show that the average loss of TRwS_(SA) measurements relative to the reference precipitation decreased from 0.55 mm(10.7%) to 0.51 mm(9.9%) for rainfall events, from 0.35 mm(8.5%)to 0.22 mm(5.3%) for sleet events, and from 0.49 mm(18.9%) to 0.33 mm(12.7%) for snowfall events after adjustment. The uncorrected large biases of TRwS_(SA) measurements are considered to be mainly caused by specific errors of TRwS_(SA), different gauge orifice area and random errors. These types of errors must be considered when comparing precipitation measurements for different gauge types, especially in the mountains.
With the popularity of the automatic precipitation gauges in national weather stations,testing their performance and adjusting their measurements are top priorities. Additionally,because different climatic conditions may have different effects on the performance of the precipitation gauges, it is also necessary to test the gauges in different areas. This study mainly analyzed precipitation measurements from the single-Altershielded TRwS204 automatic weighing gauge(TRwS_(SA)) relative to the adjusted manual measurements(reference precipitation) from the Chinese standard precipitation gauge in a doublefence wind shield(CSPG_(DF)) in the Hulu watershed in the Qilian Mountains, China. The measurements were compared over the period from August 2014 to July2017, and the transfer function derived from the work by Kochendorfer et al.(2017 a) for correcting windinduced losses was applied to the TRwS_(SA) measurements. The results show that the average loss of TRwS_(SA) measurements relative to the reference precipitation decreased from 0.55 mm(10.7%) to 0.51 mm(9.9%) for rainfall events, from 0.35 mm(8.5%)to 0.22 mm(5.3%) for sleet events, and from 0.49 mm(18.9%) to 0.33 mm(12.7%) for snowfall events after adjustment. The uncorrected large biases of TRwS_(SA) measurements are considered to be mainly caused by specific errors of TRwS_(SA), different gauge orifice area and random errors. These types of errors must be considered when comparing precipitation measurements for different gauge types, especially in the mountains.
With the popularity of the automatic precipitation gauges in national weather stations,testing their performance and adjusting their measurements are top priorities. Additionally,because different climatic conditions may have different effects on the performance of the precipitation gauges, it is also necessary to test the gauges in different areas. This study mainly analyzed precipitation measurements from the single-Altershielded TRwS204 automatic weighing gauge(TRwS_(SA)) relative to the adjusted manual measurements(reference precipitation) from the Chinese standard precipitation gauge in a doublefence wind shield(CSPG_(DF)) in the Hulu watershed in the Qilian Mountains, China. The measurements were compared over the period from August 2014 to July2017, and the transfer function derived from the work by Kochendorfer et al.(2017 a) for correcting windinduced losses was applied to the TRwS_(SA) measurements. The results show that the average loss of TRwS_(SA) measurements relative to the reference precipitation decreased from 0.55 mm(10.7%) to 0.51 mm(9.9%) for rainfall events, from 0.35 mm(8.5%)to 0.22 mm(5.3%) for sleet events, and from 0.49 mm(18.9%) to 0.33 mm(12.7%) for snowfall events after adjustment. The uncorrected large biases of TRwS_(SA) measurements are considered to be mainly caused by specific errors of TRwS_(SA), different gauge orifice area and random errors. These types of errors must be considered when comparing precipitation measurements for different gauge types, especially in the mountains.
引文
Allerup P,Madsen H,Vejen F(1997)A comprehensive model for correcting point precipitation.Hydrology Research 28:1-20.
Benning J,Yang D(2005)Adjustment of daily precipitation data at Barrow and Nome Alaska for 1995-2001.Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research 37:276-283.https://doi.org/10.1657/1523-0430(2005)037[0276:AODPDA]2.0.CO;2
Bogdanova EG,Ilyin BM,Dragomilova IV(2002)Application of a comprehensive bias-correction model to precipitation measured at Russian North Pole drifting stations.Journal of Hydrometeorology 3:700-713.https://doi.org/10.1175/1525-7541(2002)003<0700:AOACBC>2.0.CO;2
Chen RS,Song YX,Kang ES,et al.(2014)A cryosphere-hydrology observation system in a small alpine watershed in the Qilian Mountains of China and its meteorological gradient.Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research 46:505-523.https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-46.2.505
Chen RS,Liu JF,Kang ES,et al.(2015)Precipitation measurement intercomparison in the Qilian Mountains,north-eastern Tibetan Plateau.The Cryosphere 9:1995-2008.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1995-2015
CMA-China Meteorological Administration(2007)Specifications for surface meteorological observation Part 8:Measurement of precipitation(QX/T 52-2007),China Meteorological Press,Beijing.(In Chinese)
Goodison B,Louie P,Yang DQ(1998)WMO solid precipitation measurement intercomparison-final report.IOM Report No.67,WMO/TD-No.872.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
He XB,Ye BS,Ding YJ(2009)Bias correction for precipitation measurement in Tanggula Mountain Tibetan Plateau.Advances in Water Science 20:403-408.(In Chinese)https://doi.org/10.14042/j.cnki.32.1309.2009.03.010
Kochendorfer J,Nitu R,Wolff M,et al.(2017a)Analysis of single-Alter-shielded and unshielded measurements of mixed and solid precipitation from WMO-SPICE.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 21:3525-3542.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3525-2017
Kochendorfer J,Rasmussen R,Wolff M,et al.(2017b)The quantification and correction of wind-induced precipitation measurement errors.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences21:1973-1989.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1973-2017
Lanza LG,Leroy M,Alexandropoulos C,et al.(2006)WMOlaboratory intercomparison of rainfall intensity gauges.IOMReport No.84,WMO/TD-No.1304.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Nitu R,Wong K(2010)CIMO survey on national summaries of methods and instruments for solid precipitation measurement at automatic weather stations.IOM Report No.102,WMO/TD-No.1544.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Nitu R,Rasmussen R,Baker B,et al.(2012)WMOintercomparison of instruments and methods for the measurement of solid precipitation and snow on the ground:organization of the experiment.IOM Report No.109.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Rasmussen R,Baker B,Kochendorfer J,et al.(2012)How well are we measuring snow:The NOAA/FAA/NCAR winter precipitation test bed.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 93:811-829.https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00052.1
Ren ZH,Wang GL,Zou FL,et al.(2003)The research of precipitation measurement errors in China.Acta Meteorologica Sinica 61:621-627.(In Chinese)
Ren ZH,Li MQ(2007)Errors and correction of precipitation measurements in China.Advances in Atmospheric Sciences24:449-458.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-007-0449-3
Savina M,Sch?ppi B,Molnar P,et al.(2012)Comparison of a tipping-bucket and electronic weighing precipitation gage for snowfall.Atmospheric Research 103:45-51.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.06.010
Sevruk B,Hamon WR(1984)International comparison of national precipitation gauges with a reference pit gauge.IOMReport No.17,WMO/TD-No.38.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Sevruk B,Klemm S(1989)Catalogue of National Standard Precipitation Gauges.IOM Report No.39,WMO/TD-No.313.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Sevruk B(1996)Adjustment of tipping-bucket precipitation gauge measurements.Atmospheric Research 42:237-246.
Sevruk B,Chvíla B(2005)Error sources of precipitation measurements using electronic weight systems.Atmospheric Research 77:39-47.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2004.10.026
Sevruk B,Ondrás M,Chvíla B(2009)The WMO precipitation measurement intercomparisons.Atmospheric Research 92:376-380.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.01.016
Smith CD(2008)Correcting the wind bias in snowfall measurements made with a Geonor T-200B precipitation gauge and Alter wind shield.CMOS Bulletin SCMO 36:162-167.
Sugiura K,Yang DQ,Ohata T(2003)Systematic error aspects of gauge-measured solid precipitation in the Arctic,Barrow,Alaska.Geophysical Research Letters 30:1192.https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL015547
Wang L,Chen RS,Song YX(2017)Research review on calculation methods and influential factors on areal precipitation of alpine mountains.Plateau Meteorology 36:1546-1556.(In Chinese)https://doi.org/10.7522/j.issn.1000-0534.2017.00007
WMO(2014)Project Team and(Reduced)International Organizing Committee for the WMO Solid Precipitation Intercomparison Experiment Fifth Session-Final Report.Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation,Sodankyl?,Finland.
Wolff MA,Isaksen K,Br?kkan,R,et al.(2012)Measurements of wind-induced loss of solid precipitation:description of a Norwegian field study.Hydrology Research 44:35-43.https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2012.166
Wolff MA,Isaksen K,Petersen-?verleir A,et al.(2015)Derivation of a new continuous adjustment function for correcting wind-induced loss of solid precipitation:results of a Norwegian field study.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19:951-967.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-951-2015
Yang DQ,Jiang T,Zhang YS,et al.(1988)Analysis and correction of errors in precipitation measurement at the head of Urumqi River,Tianshan.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 10:384-400.(In Chinese)
Yang DQ,Kang ES,Zhang YS et al.(1989)Analysis and correction of wind effects on precipitation measurements at the head of Urumqi river during summer.Meteorological Monthly 15:22-27.(In Chinese)
Yang DQ,Shi YF,Kang ES,et al.(1991)Results of solid precipitation measurement intercomparison in the alpine area of Urumqi river basin.Chinese Science Bulletin 36:1105-1109.
Yang DQ,Goodison BE,Metcalfe JR,et al.(1998)Accuracy of NWS 8″standard nonrecording precipitation gauge:results and application of WMO intercomparison.Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 15:54-68.https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<0054:AONSNP>2.0.CO;2
Yang DQ,Elomaa E,Tuominen A,et al.(1999a)Wind-induced precipitation undercatch of the Hellmann gauges.Hydrology Research 30:57-80.https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.1999.0004
Yang DQ,Goodison BE,Metcalfe JR,et al.(1999b)Quantification of precipitation measurement discontinuity induced by wind shields on national gauges.Water Resources Research 35:491-508.https://doi.org/10.1029/1998WR900042
Yang DQ,Kane D,Zhang ZP,et al.(2005)Bias corrections of long-term(1973-2004)daily precipitation data over the northern regions.Geophysical Research Letters 32:L19501.https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024057
Yang DQ(2014)Double Fence Intercomparison Reference(DFIR)vs.Bush Gauge for“true”snowfall measurement.Journal of Hydrology 509:94-100.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.08.052
Ye BS,Yang DQ,Ding YJ,et al.(2004)A bias-corrected precipitation climatology for China.Journal of Hydrometeorology 5:1147-1160.https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-366.1
Ye BS,Yang DQ,Ding YJ,et al.(2007)A bias-corrected precipitation climatology for China.Acta Geographica Sinica62:3-13.(In Chinese)
Zhang YS,Ohata T,Yang DQ,et al.(2004)Bias correction of daily precipitation measurements for Mongolia.Hydrological Processes 18:2991-3005.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5745
Zheng Q,Chen RS,Han CT,et al.(2017)Correcting precipitation measurements of TRwS204 in the Qilian Mountains,China.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2017-8
Zhu P,Chen RS,Song YX,et al.(2015)Soil microbial community diversity under four vegetation types in the Qilian Mountains,China.Acta Prataculturae Sinica 24:75-84.(In Chinese)https://doi.org/10.11686/cyxb2014272
Benning J,Yang D(2005)Adjustment of daily precipitation data at Barrow and Nome Alaska for 1995-2001.Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research 37:276-283.https://doi.org/10.1657/1523-0430(2005)037[0276:AODPDA]2.0.CO;2
Bogdanova EG,Ilyin BM,Dragomilova IV(2002)Application of a comprehensive bias-correction model to precipitation measured at Russian North Pole drifting stations.Journal of Hydrometeorology 3:700-713.https://doi.org/10.1175/1525-7541(2002)003<0700:AOACBC>2.0.CO;2
Chen RS,Song YX,Kang ES,et al.(2014)A cryosphere-hydrology observation system in a small alpine watershed in the Qilian Mountains of China and its meteorological gradient.Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research 46:505-523.https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-46.2.505
Chen RS,Liu JF,Kang ES,et al.(2015)Precipitation measurement intercomparison in the Qilian Mountains,north-eastern Tibetan Plateau.The Cryosphere 9:1995-2008.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1995-2015
CMA-China Meteorological Administration(2007)Specifications for surface meteorological observation Part 8:Measurement of precipitation(QX/T 52-2007),China Meteorological Press,Beijing.(In Chinese)
Goodison B,Louie P,Yang DQ(1998)WMO solid precipitation measurement intercomparison-final report.IOM Report No.67,WMO/TD-No.872.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
He XB,Ye BS,Ding YJ(2009)Bias correction for precipitation measurement in Tanggula Mountain Tibetan Plateau.Advances in Water Science 20:403-408.(In Chinese)https://doi.org/10.14042/j.cnki.32.1309.2009.03.010
Kochendorfer J,Nitu R,Wolff M,et al.(2017a)Analysis of single-Alter-shielded and unshielded measurements of mixed and solid precipitation from WMO-SPICE.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 21:3525-3542.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3525-2017
Kochendorfer J,Rasmussen R,Wolff M,et al.(2017b)The quantification and correction of wind-induced precipitation measurement errors.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences21:1973-1989.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1973-2017
Lanza LG,Leroy M,Alexandropoulos C,et al.(2006)WMOlaboratory intercomparison of rainfall intensity gauges.IOMReport No.84,WMO/TD-No.1304.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Nitu R,Wong K(2010)CIMO survey on national summaries of methods and instruments for solid precipitation measurement at automatic weather stations.IOM Report No.102,WMO/TD-No.1544.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Nitu R,Rasmussen R,Baker B,et al.(2012)WMOintercomparison of instruments and methods for the measurement of solid precipitation and snow on the ground:organization of the experiment.IOM Report No.109.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Rasmussen R,Baker B,Kochendorfer J,et al.(2012)How well are we measuring snow:The NOAA/FAA/NCAR winter precipitation test bed.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 93:811-829.https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00052.1
Ren ZH,Wang GL,Zou FL,et al.(2003)The research of precipitation measurement errors in China.Acta Meteorologica Sinica 61:621-627.(In Chinese)
Ren ZH,Li MQ(2007)Errors and correction of precipitation measurements in China.Advances in Atmospheric Sciences24:449-458.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-007-0449-3
Savina M,Sch?ppi B,Molnar P,et al.(2012)Comparison of a tipping-bucket and electronic weighing precipitation gage for snowfall.Atmospheric Research 103:45-51.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.06.010
Sevruk B,Hamon WR(1984)International comparison of national precipitation gauges with a reference pit gauge.IOMReport No.17,WMO/TD-No.38.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Sevruk B,Klemm S(1989)Catalogue of National Standard Precipitation Gauges.IOM Report No.39,WMO/TD-No.313.WMO,Geneva,Switzerland.
Sevruk B(1996)Adjustment of tipping-bucket precipitation gauge measurements.Atmospheric Research 42:237-246.
Sevruk B,Chvíla B(2005)Error sources of precipitation measurements using electronic weight systems.Atmospheric Research 77:39-47.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2004.10.026
Sevruk B,Ondrás M,Chvíla B(2009)The WMO precipitation measurement intercomparisons.Atmospheric Research 92:376-380.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.01.016
Smith CD(2008)Correcting the wind bias in snowfall measurements made with a Geonor T-200B precipitation gauge and Alter wind shield.CMOS Bulletin SCMO 36:162-167.
Sugiura K,Yang DQ,Ohata T(2003)Systematic error aspects of gauge-measured solid precipitation in the Arctic,Barrow,Alaska.Geophysical Research Letters 30:1192.https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL015547
Wang L,Chen RS,Song YX(2017)Research review on calculation methods and influential factors on areal precipitation of alpine mountains.Plateau Meteorology 36:1546-1556.(In Chinese)https://doi.org/10.7522/j.issn.1000-0534.2017.00007
WMO(2014)Project Team and(Reduced)International Organizing Committee for the WMO Solid Precipitation Intercomparison Experiment Fifth Session-Final Report.Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation,Sodankyl?,Finland.
Wolff MA,Isaksen K,Br?kkan,R,et al.(2012)Measurements of wind-induced loss of solid precipitation:description of a Norwegian field study.Hydrology Research 44:35-43.https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2012.166
Wolff MA,Isaksen K,Petersen-?verleir A,et al.(2015)Derivation of a new continuous adjustment function for correcting wind-induced loss of solid precipitation:results of a Norwegian field study.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19:951-967.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-951-2015
Yang DQ,Jiang T,Zhang YS,et al.(1988)Analysis and correction of errors in precipitation measurement at the head of Urumqi River,Tianshan.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 10:384-400.(In Chinese)
Yang DQ,Kang ES,Zhang YS et al.(1989)Analysis and correction of wind effects on precipitation measurements at the head of Urumqi river during summer.Meteorological Monthly 15:22-27.(In Chinese)
Yang DQ,Shi YF,Kang ES,et al.(1991)Results of solid precipitation measurement intercomparison in the alpine area of Urumqi river basin.Chinese Science Bulletin 36:1105-1109.
Yang DQ,Goodison BE,Metcalfe JR,et al.(1998)Accuracy of NWS 8″standard nonrecording precipitation gauge:results and application of WMO intercomparison.Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 15:54-68.https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<0054:AONSNP>2.0.CO;2
Yang DQ,Elomaa E,Tuominen A,et al.(1999a)Wind-induced precipitation undercatch of the Hellmann gauges.Hydrology Research 30:57-80.https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.1999.0004
Yang DQ,Goodison BE,Metcalfe JR,et al.(1999b)Quantification of precipitation measurement discontinuity induced by wind shields on national gauges.Water Resources Research 35:491-508.https://doi.org/10.1029/1998WR900042
Yang DQ,Kane D,Zhang ZP,et al.(2005)Bias corrections of long-term(1973-2004)daily precipitation data over the northern regions.Geophysical Research Letters 32:L19501.https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024057
Yang DQ(2014)Double Fence Intercomparison Reference(DFIR)vs.Bush Gauge for“true”snowfall measurement.Journal of Hydrology 509:94-100.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.08.052
Ye BS,Yang DQ,Ding YJ,et al.(2004)A bias-corrected precipitation climatology for China.Journal of Hydrometeorology 5:1147-1160.https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-366.1
Ye BS,Yang DQ,Ding YJ,et al.(2007)A bias-corrected precipitation climatology for China.Acta Geographica Sinica62:3-13.(In Chinese)
Zhang YS,Ohata T,Yang DQ,et al.(2004)Bias correction of daily precipitation measurements for Mongolia.Hydrological Processes 18:2991-3005.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5745
Zheng Q,Chen RS,Han CT,et al.(2017)Correcting precipitation measurements of TRwS204 in the Qilian Mountains,China.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2017-8
Zhu P,Chen RS,Song YX,et al.(2015)Soil microbial community diversity under four vegetation types in the Qilian Mountains,China.Acta Prataculturae Sinica 24:75-84.(In Chinese)https://doi.org/10.11686/cyxb2014272