中国情境下的工作嵌入:构念内涵、维度和量表开发
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摘要
旨在探究中国情境下工作嵌入的内涵和开发有效测量工具,本研究通过访谈和问卷调查,首先明确工作嵌入的本土内涵和结构,进而开发了组合量表。步骤如下:(1)对15名员工访谈,探索性分析他们离职的主要思考要素;(2)收集和分析76位被试的开放式调查数据,确认工作嵌入的各维度内容和收集题项素材,结合以往文献编制出含25个题项的初始量表;(3)预测试234名员工,通过项目鉴别和探索性因子分析修正量表,余下23个题项分属于组织匹配、组织联系、组织牺牲、区域匹配、区域联系和区域牺牲六个因子,量表信、效度均达到较佳的水平;(4)复测试448名员工,验证性因子分析支持了量表的结构效度-前3个因子隶属组织维度,后3个因子隶属区域维度。以工作嵌入整体量表和工作满意为关联校标,皮尔逊相关分别为0.56和0.52,支持了量表的外部效度。文章最后讨论了工作嵌入本土量表的文化意义及量表的应用范围。
Since Brayfield and Crockett first thought about the impact of employee attitudes toward turnover more than half a century ago, turnover has been the focus of organizational psychology and management study. In the 21 st century, scholars are more interested in the study of the resignation because of the fierce competition for talents. In the traditional framework of the increasingly saturated case, job embeddedness and other emerging theories highlight the vitality. While many empirical studies support high predictive power of turnover, the vast majority of these tests are limited to European and American contexts and lack cross-cultural research in different countries and cultures. In view of the shortcomings of cross-cultural studies, this study intends to start the empirical research from the most basic issues:(1) confirm the connotation, structure and dimension content of the construct in Chinese context; and(2) develop an applicable, effective and credible scale to ensure the basis for the measurement study.Job embeddedness research in China is growing in importance, but always lacks effective development based on local situation measurement tools. Western scholars have developed a number of scales of job embeddedness, such as Mitchell's the composite scale and Crossly's global scale. Admittedly, direct translation orientation has the advantages of saving time and effort, but the original part of the scale is difficult to reflect the reality of China. In addition, social attachment is influenced by national system and cultural factors, and conceptual differences make the de-contextualization difficult to apply. In view of this, based on the Chinese context and the understanding of the contents and other characteristics of the job embeddedness, this study developed an appropriate measurement tool to test the structure. In order to achieve this goal, three studies were carried out: The first study analyzes the content and dimension of job embeddedness in Chinese content. The second study verifies the connotation and dimension content further, in particular to verify its local special dimensions and content, and collect the appropriate item material at the same time. The third study develops the local scale and tests conceptual structure. In the first study, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 subjects who had undergone turnover or had the intention to quit.. First of all, we decomposed the grounded information, and made a total of 255 labeled stickers. Then, we derived 178 concepts by summarizing the labels. Through the standardization process to confirm the relationship between statements, we constructed 47 keywords. Finally, the dimension of the job embeddedness structure was classified and the number of concepts to be processed was reduced by normalization. In Chinese context, job embeddedness can be divided into two categories: organizations and regions. In terms of relationship types, there were three types: fit, link and sacrifice. Therefore, we regarded job embeddedness in the local situation as a structure including the organizational and regional aspects of the six types of links between the multi-dimensional structure: link-organization, fit-organization, sacrifice-organization, link-region, fit-region and sacrifice-region. In the second study, 76 students from a university in North China voluntarily participated in the open questionnaire, which included two open questions: "Why do you stay in this company?", "If you leave the city now, What's the hardest part for you to give up? " Form the first question of the open questionnaires, we obtained 320 statements. After deleting 22 ambiguous, and unclear and inconsistent statements, we obtained a total of 298 valid statements. The effective response rate was 93.1%. There were 21 categories in the effective statement. The categories were classified into 6 subcategories. The subcategories were classified into on-the-job subcategory which included 16 types and off-the-job subcategory which included 5 types. The 16 types of statements were classified into three types: it-organization, link-organization, sacrifice-organization. The 5 types of statements are classified into three categories: link-region, fit-region and sacrifice-region. Form the second question of the open questionnaires, we obtained 273 statements, removed 14 ambiguous, unclear and inconsistent statements, and obtained 259 valid statements. The effective response rate was 94.8%. There were 12 categories in the effective statements, and they could fall into 3 subcategories in which there were 3 types in link-region, 4 types in fit-region, and 5 types in sacrifice-region. In the third study, two questionnaires were conducted. In the pre-testing phase, we selected 234 employees from two companies in North China as subjects. Through the analysis of the items, the correlation analysis, the internal consistency reliability analysis, the exploratory factor analysis and other data analysis, the revised scale included 23 items, which were divided into 6 factors: link-organization, fit-organization, sacrifice-organization, link-region,fit-region and sacrifice-region. In addition, The Global Job Embeddedness Scale and Job Satisfaction Scale were selected as the calibration of job embeddedness local scales. The correlation between the six dimensions and the job satisfaction scale was between 0.120 and 0.647, and the correlation with the overall job mbeddedness scale was between 0.180 and 0.432. The scales developed in this study had good calibration validity. In the confirmatory factor analysis, the job imbeddedness measurement was carried out with 448 employees in 5 enterprises using the revised items of 23 items. The data analysis showed that the questionnaire had good predictive stability and reliable structure. The scale was based on the job embeddedness multi-dimensional dependency model by taking the localization of ideas to form it. The scale consisted of 23 items, which were divided into two categories: organizations and regions. Each contained three kinds of factors: link, fit and sacrifice. The Cronbachs' alpha coefficient of initial test(sample = 234) was higher than 0.778, and the Cronbachs' alpha coefficient of retest(sample = 448) was higher than 0.829. In addition, The Global Job Embeddedness Scale and Job Satisfaction Scale were used as external criteria. The correlation coefficient with the GJES was 0.56 and that with the JSS was 0.52. No gender differences were found. The strategy of localization and the scope of application were also discussed in this study. In short, the scale used for our work in Chinese context of job embeddedness measurement had a satisfactory reliability and validity.
Since Brayfield and Crockett first thought about the impact of employee attitudes toward turnover more than half a century ago, turnover has been the focus of organizational psychology and management study. In the 21 st century, scholars are more interested in the study of the resignation because of the fierce competition for talents. In the traditional framework of the increasingly saturated case, job embeddedness and other emerging theories highlight the vitality. While many empirical studies support high predictive power of turnover, the vast majority of these tests are limited to European and American contexts and lack cross-cultural research in different countries and cultures. In view of the shortcomings of cross-cultural studies, this study intends to start the empirical research from the most basic issues:(1) confirm the connotation, structure and dimension content of the construct in Chinese context; and(2) develop an applicable, effective and credible scale to ensure the basis for the measurement study.Job embeddedness research in China is growing in importance, but always lacks effective development based on local situation measurement tools. Western scholars have developed a number of scales of job embeddedness, such as Mitchell's the composite scale and Crossly's global scale. Admittedly, direct translation orientation has the advantages of saving time and effort, but the original part of the scale is difficult to reflect the reality of China. In addition, social attachment is influenced by national system and cultural factors, and conceptual differences make the de-contextualization difficult to apply. In view of this, based on the Chinese context and the understanding of the contents and other characteristics of the job embeddedness, this study developed an appropriate measurement tool to test the structure. In order to achieve this goal, three studies were carried out: The first study analyzes the content and dimension of job embeddedness in Chinese content. The second study verifies the connotation and dimension content further, in particular to verify its local special dimensions and content, and collect the appropriate item material at the same time. The third study develops the local scale and tests conceptual structure. In the first study, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 subjects who had undergone turnover or had the intention to quit.. First of all, we decomposed the grounded information, and made a total of 255 labeled stickers. Then, we derived 178 concepts by summarizing the labels. Through the standardization process to confirm the relationship between statements, we constructed 47 keywords. Finally, the dimension of the job embeddedness structure was classified and the number of concepts to be processed was reduced by normalization. In Chinese context, job embeddedness can be divided into two categories: organizations and regions. In terms of relationship types, there were three types: fit, link and sacrifice. Therefore, we regarded job embeddedness in the local situation as a structure including the organizational and regional aspects of the six types of links between the multi-dimensional structure: link-organization, fit-organization, sacrifice-organization, link-region, fit-region and sacrifice-region. In the second study, 76 students from a university in North China voluntarily participated in the open questionnaire, which included two open questions: "Why do you stay in this company?", "If you leave the city now, What's the hardest part for you to give up? " Form the first question of the open questionnaires, we obtained 320 statements. After deleting 22 ambiguous, and unclear and inconsistent statements, we obtained a total of 298 valid statements. The effective response rate was 93.1%. There were 21 categories in the effective statement. The categories were classified into 6 subcategories. The subcategories were classified into on-the-job subcategory which included 16 types and off-the-job subcategory which included 5 types. The 16 types of statements were classified into three types: it-organization, link-organization, sacrifice-organization. The 5 types of statements are classified into three categories: link-region, fit-region and sacrifice-region. Form the second question of the open questionnaires, we obtained 273 statements, removed 14 ambiguous, unclear and inconsistent statements, and obtained 259 valid statements. The effective response rate was 94.8%. There were 12 categories in the effective statements, and they could fall into 3 subcategories in which there were 3 types in link-region, 4 types in fit-region, and 5 types in sacrifice-region. In the third study, two questionnaires were conducted. In the pre-testing phase, we selected 234 employees from two companies in North China as subjects. Through the analysis of the items, the correlation analysis, the internal consistency reliability analysis, the exploratory factor analysis and other data analysis, the revised scale included 23 items, which were divided into 6 factors: link-organization, fit-organization, sacrifice-organization, link-region,fit-region and sacrifice-region. In addition, The Global Job Embeddedness Scale and Job Satisfaction Scale were selected as the calibration of job embeddedness local scales. The correlation between the six dimensions and the job satisfaction scale was between 0.120 and 0.647, and the correlation with the overall job mbeddedness scale was between 0.180 and 0.432. The scales developed in this study had good calibration validity. In the confirmatory factor analysis, the job imbeddedness measurement was carried out with 448 employees in 5 enterprises using the revised items of 23 items. The data analysis showed that the questionnaire had good predictive stability and reliable structure. The scale was based on the job embeddedness multi-dimensional dependency model by taking the localization of ideas to form it. The scale consisted of 23 items, which were divided into two categories: organizations and regions. Each contained three kinds of factors: link, fit and sacrifice. The Cronbachs' alpha coefficient of initial test(sample = 234) was higher than 0.778, and the Cronbachs' alpha coefficient of retest(sample = 448) was higher than 0.829. In addition, The Global Job Embeddedness Scale and Job Satisfaction Scale were used as external criteria. The correlation coefficient with the GJES was 0.56 and that with the JSS was 0.52. No gender differences were found. The strategy of localization and the scope of application were also discussed in this study. In short, the scale used for our work in Chinese context of job embeddedness measurement had a satisfactory reliability and validity.
引文
[1]Barrick MR,Zimmerman RD.Reducing voluntary,avoidable turnover through selection[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2005,90(1):159-166.
[2]Ramesh A,Gelfand MJ.Will they stay or will they go?The role of job embeddedness in predicting turnover in individualistic and collectivistic cultures[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2010,95(5):807-823.
[3]March JG,Simon HA.Organizations[M].Wiley:Oxford,1958.
[4]Mitchell TR,Holtom BC,Lee TW,Sablynski CJ et al.Why people stay:Using job embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover[J].Academy of management journal,2001,44(6):1102-1121.
[5]杨春江,马钦海,曾先峰.从留职视角预测离职:工作嵌入研究述评[J].南开管理评论,2010(2):105-118.
[6]Lee TW,Mitchell TR,Sablynski CJ et al.The effects of job embeddedness on organizational citizenship,job performance,volitional absences,and voluntary turnover[J].Academy of management journal,2004,47(5):711-722.
[7]Crossley CD,Bennett RJ,Jex SM et al.Development of a global measure of job embeddedness and integration into a traditional model of voluntary turnover[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2007,92(4):1031-1042.
[8]Holtom BC,O'Neill BS.Job embeddedness:A theoretical foundation for developing a comprehensive nurse retention plan[J].Journal of Nursing Administration,2004,34(5):216-227.
[9]Fink JS,Cunningham GB,Sagas M.Job embeddedness:Effects of coaches’turnover intentions[J].Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,2003,74(1):86-87.
[10]Cunningham GB,Fink JS,Sagas M.Extensions and further examination of the job embeddedness construct[J].Journal of Sport Management,2005,19(3):319-335.
[11]Mallol CM,Holtom BC,Lee TW.Job embeddedness in a culturally diverse environment[J].Journal of Business and Psychology,2007,22(1):35-44.
[12]Sekiguchi T,Burton JP,Sablynski CJ.The role of job embeddedness on employee performance:The interactive effects with leadermember exchange and organization‐based self‐esteem[J].Personnel Psychology,2008,61(4):761-792.
[13]Jiang K,Liu D,McKay PF et al.When and how is job embeddedness predictive of turnover?A meta-analytic investigation[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2012,97(5):1077-1096.
[14]Zhang M,Fried DD,Griffeth RW.A review of job embeddedness:Conceptual,measurement issues,and directions for future research[J].Human Resource management review,2012,22(3):220-231.
[15]Triandis HC.The analysis of subjective culture[M].New York:Wiley,1972.
[16]Hogan RT,Emler NP.The biases in contemporary social psychology[J].Social Research,1978,45(3):478-534.
[17]王端旭,单建伟.诱引与科技人才工作绩效关系研究-工作嵌入为中介变量[J].科学学研究,2010,28(8):1248-1253.
[18]买忆媛,辜雪娜.工作经验一定有助于创业过程吗:基于工作内嵌入的分析[J].南开管理评论,2011,14(2):144-149.
[19]杨东涛,秦伟平.群关系视角下新生代农民工身份定位与工作嵌入关系研究[J].管理学报,2013,10(4):528-535.
[20]杨春江,马钦海,周宝刚等.组织公平感对离职意愿的影响--工作嵌入的中介作用[J].中大管理研究,2013,8(2):105-140.
[21]周丽芳,李原.华人组织中的关系与社会网络[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006.
[22]Redding SG,Norman A,Schlander A.The nature of individual attachment to the organization:A review of East Asia variation.In:Munnette MD,Hough LM,editors.Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology[M].Palo Alto,CA:Consulting Psychology Press,1993.
[23]Jacobs JB.The concept of guanxi and local politics in a rural Chinese cultural setting[M].In:Greenblatt SL,Wilson RW,Wilson AA,editors.Social Interaction in Chinese Society.New York:Praeger,1980.
[24]黄光国.中国人的权力游戏[M].台北:巨流图书公司,1988.
[25]杨国枢.中国人的社会取向:社会互动的观点[M].见:杨国枢,余安邦,editors.中国人的心理与社会行为-理念及方法篇.台北:桂冠图书公司,1993.
[26]Tsui AS,Farh JL,Xin K.Guanxi in the Chinese context[M].In:Li JT,Tsui AS,weldon E,editors.Management and organizations in the Chinese context.London:MacMillan,2000.
[27]陈晓萍.跨文化管理[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2011.
[28]Laurent A.The cultural diversity of western conceptions of management[J].International Studies of Management&Organization1983,13(1/2):75-96.
[29]Farh JL,Tsui AS,Xin K et al.The influence of relational demography and guanxi:The Chinese case[J].Organization science,1998,9(4):471-488.
[30]郑伯埙.差序格局与华人组织行为[J].本土心理学研究,1995(3):142-219.
[31]Kluckhohn F,Strodtbeck F.Variations in Value Orientation[M].Evanston,IL:Row,Peterson,1961.
[32]殷海光.中国文化的展望[M].北京:中国和平出版社,1988.
[33]Farh JL,Cannella AA,Lee C.Approaches to scale development in Chinese management research[J].Management and Organization Review,2006,2(3):301-318.
[34]徐淑英,刘忠明.中国企业管理的前沿研究[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004.
[35]Tsui AS,Wang H,Xin KR.Organizational culture in China:An analysis of culture dimensions and culture types[J].Management and Organization Review,2006,2(3):345-376.
[36]Mitchell TR,Holtom BC,Lee TW.Why people stay:Using job embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover[J].Academy of Management Journal,2001,44(6):1102-1121.
[37]Lee TW,Sablynski CJ,Burton JP et al.The effects of job embeddedness on organizational citizenship,job performance,volitional absences,and voluntary turnover[J].Academy of Management Journal,2004,47(5):711-722.
[38]Hinkin TR.A review of scale development practices in the study of organizations[J].Journal of Management,1995,21(5):967-988.
[39]Churchill JrGA.A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs[J].Journal of marketing research,1979,XVI(2):64-73.
[40]Crossley CD,Bennett RJ,Jex SM et al.Development of a global measure of job embeddedness and integration into a traditional model of voluntary turnover[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2007,92(4):1031-1042.
[41]Nunnally JC.Paychametric THeory[M].New York:Mc Graw-Hill,1994.
[42]Ford JK,Mac Callum RC,Tait M.The application of exploratory factor analysis in applied psychology:A critical review and analysis[J].Personnel Psychology 1986,39(2):291-314.
[43]吴明隆.结构方程模型-AMOS的操作与应用[M].重庆:重庆大学出版社,2009.
[44]Alderson JC.Assessing Reading[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000.
[2]Ramesh A,Gelfand MJ.Will they stay or will they go?The role of job embeddedness in predicting turnover in individualistic and collectivistic cultures[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2010,95(5):807-823.
[3]March JG,Simon HA.Organizations[M].Wiley:Oxford,1958.
[4]Mitchell TR,Holtom BC,Lee TW,Sablynski CJ et al.Why people stay:Using job embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover[J].Academy of management journal,2001,44(6):1102-1121.
[5]杨春江,马钦海,曾先峰.从留职视角预测离职:工作嵌入研究述评[J].南开管理评论,2010(2):105-118.
[6]Lee TW,Mitchell TR,Sablynski CJ et al.The effects of job embeddedness on organizational citizenship,job performance,volitional absences,and voluntary turnover[J].Academy of management journal,2004,47(5):711-722.
[7]Crossley CD,Bennett RJ,Jex SM et al.Development of a global measure of job embeddedness and integration into a traditional model of voluntary turnover[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2007,92(4):1031-1042.
[8]Holtom BC,O'Neill BS.Job embeddedness:A theoretical foundation for developing a comprehensive nurse retention plan[J].Journal of Nursing Administration,2004,34(5):216-227.
[9]Fink JS,Cunningham GB,Sagas M.Job embeddedness:Effects of coaches’turnover intentions[J].Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,2003,74(1):86-87.
[10]Cunningham GB,Fink JS,Sagas M.Extensions and further examination of the job embeddedness construct[J].Journal of Sport Management,2005,19(3):319-335.
[11]Mallol CM,Holtom BC,Lee TW.Job embeddedness in a culturally diverse environment[J].Journal of Business and Psychology,2007,22(1):35-44.
[12]Sekiguchi T,Burton JP,Sablynski CJ.The role of job embeddedness on employee performance:The interactive effects with leadermember exchange and organization‐based self‐esteem[J].Personnel Psychology,2008,61(4):761-792.
[13]Jiang K,Liu D,McKay PF et al.When and how is job embeddedness predictive of turnover?A meta-analytic investigation[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2012,97(5):1077-1096.
[14]Zhang M,Fried DD,Griffeth RW.A review of job embeddedness:Conceptual,measurement issues,and directions for future research[J].Human Resource management review,2012,22(3):220-231.
[15]Triandis HC.The analysis of subjective culture[M].New York:Wiley,1972.
[16]Hogan RT,Emler NP.The biases in contemporary social psychology[J].Social Research,1978,45(3):478-534.
[17]王端旭,单建伟.诱引与科技人才工作绩效关系研究-工作嵌入为中介变量[J].科学学研究,2010,28(8):1248-1253.
[18]买忆媛,辜雪娜.工作经验一定有助于创业过程吗:基于工作内嵌入的分析[J].南开管理评论,2011,14(2):144-149.
[19]杨东涛,秦伟平.群关系视角下新生代农民工身份定位与工作嵌入关系研究[J].管理学报,2013,10(4):528-535.
[20]杨春江,马钦海,周宝刚等.组织公平感对离职意愿的影响--工作嵌入的中介作用[J].中大管理研究,2013,8(2):105-140.
[21]周丽芳,李原.华人组织中的关系与社会网络[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006.
[22]Redding SG,Norman A,Schlander A.The nature of individual attachment to the organization:A review of East Asia variation.In:Munnette MD,Hough LM,editors.Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology[M].Palo Alto,CA:Consulting Psychology Press,1993.
[23]Jacobs JB.The concept of guanxi and local politics in a rural Chinese cultural setting[M].In:Greenblatt SL,Wilson RW,Wilson AA,editors.Social Interaction in Chinese Society.New York:Praeger,1980.
[24]黄光国.中国人的权力游戏[M].台北:巨流图书公司,1988.
[25]杨国枢.中国人的社会取向:社会互动的观点[M].见:杨国枢,余安邦,editors.中国人的心理与社会行为-理念及方法篇.台北:桂冠图书公司,1993.
[26]Tsui AS,Farh JL,Xin K.Guanxi in the Chinese context[M].In:Li JT,Tsui AS,weldon E,editors.Management and organizations in the Chinese context.London:MacMillan,2000.
[27]陈晓萍.跨文化管理[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2011.
[28]Laurent A.The cultural diversity of western conceptions of management[J].International Studies of Management&Organization1983,13(1/2):75-96.
[29]Farh JL,Tsui AS,Xin K et al.The influence of relational demography and guanxi:The Chinese case[J].Organization science,1998,9(4):471-488.
[30]郑伯埙.差序格局与华人组织行为[J].本土心理学研究,1995(3):142-219.
[31]Kluckhohn F,Strodtbeck F.Variations in Value Orientation[M].Evanston,IL:Row,Peterson,1961.
[32]殷海光.中国文化的展望[M].北京:中国和平出版社,1988.
[33]Farh JL,Cannella AA,Lee C.Approaches to scale development in Chinese management research[J].Management and Organization Review,2006,2(3):301-318.
[34]徐淑英,刘忠明.中国企业管理的前沿研究[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004.
[35]Tsui AS,Wang H,Xin KR.Organizational culture in China:An analysis of culture dimensions and culture types[J].Management and Organization Review,2006,2(3):345-376.
[36]Mitchell TR,Holtom BC,Lee TW.Why people stay:Using job embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover[J].Academy of Management Journal,2001,44(6):1102-1121.
[37]Lee TW,Sablynski CJ,Burton JP et al.The effects of job embeddedness on organizational citizenship,job performance,volitional absences,and voluntary turnover[J].Academy of Management Journal,2004,47(5):711-722.
[38]Hinkin TR.A review of scale development practices in the study of organizations[J].Journal of Management,1995,21(5):967-988.
[39]Churchill JrGA.A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs[J].Journal of marketing research,1979,XVI(2):64-73.
[40]Crossley CD,Bennett RJ,Jex SM et al.Development of a global measure of job embeddedness and integration into a traditional model of voluntary turnover[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2007,92(4):1031-1042.
[41]Nunnally JC.Paychametric THeory[M].New York:Mc Graw-Hill,1994.
[42]Ford JK,Mac Callum RC,Tait M.The application of exploratory factor analysis in applied psychology:A critical review and analysis[J].Personnel Psychology 1986,39(2):291-314.
[43]吴明隆.结构方程模型-AMOS的操作与应用[M].重庆:重庆大学出版社,2009.
[44]Alderson JC.Assessing Reading[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000.