对贫困决定因素的性别比较研究——基于2014年中国家庭追踪调查城乡非农业人口的实证分析
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摘要
文章从贫困的性别比较视角出发,以2014年中国家庭追踪调查(CFPS)数据为实证基础,揭示了人口特征、婚姻家庭、就业和性别观念四方面因素对男女两性贫困的差异化影响。在采用传统家庭贫困测量模型的同时,本研究还构建了个体能力匮乏模型,以拓展两性致贫因素在更多面向中的对比分析。结果显示,当贫困问题被置于家庭视域下考察时,女性贫困比男性贫困更强地受到婚姻的影响,较弱程度地受到人口特征和就业的影响;而将男女两性作为独立个体来观察个人的收入匮乏风险时,婚姻对两性的影响都不再显著,人口特征和就业变量转而对女性产生更强的影响。性别观念会通过就业中介变量显著地影响女性个体收入的匮乏。上述发现对于认识中国贫困发生机制中的两性差异具有重要意义,同时亦可为女性贫困的精准治理提供现实政策依据。
This paper uses 2014 CFPS data in a comparison of gender-based poverty and uncovers that the characteristics of population,marriage and family,employment and gender awareness have bearings on the differences between men and women in poverty. Apart from using the traditional measurement of family-based poverty,this study has adopted the lack of individual capability as a factor in expanding poverty faced differently by men and women. Consequently, when poverty is viewed at the level of family, women's poverty more than men's poverty is influenced more by marriage than individual characteristics and employment. However, when poverty is viewed based on individual's risk of income loss,marriage is no longer important in influencing poverty for men and women. Changes in employment and individual capability become an important factor in women's poverty. Gender awareness among women changes along with changes in their employment and in turns affects greatly their lack of income. This finding is important in recognizing gender-based differences in poverty incidents as well as adopting effective policy strategy to tackle women's poverty.
This paper uses 2014 CFPS data in a comparison of gender-based poverty and uncovers that the characteristics of population,marriage and family,employment and gender awareness have bearings on the differences between men and women in poverty. Apart from using the traditional measurement of family-based poverty,this study has adopted the lack of individual capability as a factor in expanding poverty faced differently by men and women. Consequently, when poverty is viewed at the level of family, women's poverty more than men's poverty is influenced more by marriage than individual characteristics and employment. However, when poverty is viewed based on individual's risk of income loss,marriage is no longer important in influencing poverty for men and women. Changes in employment and individual capability become an important factor in women's poverty. Gender awareness among women changes along with changes in their employment and in turns affects greatly their lack of income. This finding is important in recognizing gender-based differences in poverty incidents as well as adopting effective policy strategy to tackle women's poverty.
引文
[1]第二期中国妇女社会地位调查课题组.第二期中国妇女社会地位抽样调查主要数据报告[J].妇女研究论丛,2001,(5).
[2]第三期中国妇女社会地位调查课题组.第三期中国妇女社会地位抽样调查主要数据报告[J]·妇女研究论丛,2011,(6).
[3]Blau,F.,Ferber,M.,Winkler,A.,The Economics of Women,Men and Work[M]. New Jersey:Pearson Prentice-Hall,2006.
[4] Ehrenberg,R.,Smith,R.. Modern Labor Economics:Theory and Public Policy[M]. Pearson Addison Wesley,2006.
[5]Koeber,C., Wright,D. W.. Gender Differences in the Reemployment Status of Displaced Workers Human Capital as Signals that Mitigate Effects of Bias[J]. Journal of Socio-Economics, 2006,35(5):780-796.
[6] Abhishek Kumar. Urban Poverty and Utilization of Maternal and Child Health Care Services in India[J]. Journal of Biosocial Science,2013,45(4):433-449.
[7]Pearce,D. The Feminization of Poverty:Women,Work and Welfare[J]. The Urban and Social Science Review,1978,11:28-36.
[8]Moghadam,V.M.. Globalizing Women:Transnational Feminist Networks[M]. Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2005.
[9] Sainsbury, D.. Gender and Welfare State Regimes[M]. New York:Oxford University Press, 1999.
[10] Steven Pressman. Feminist Explanations for the Feminization of Poverty[J]. Journal of Economic Issue,2003,37(2):353-361.
[11] Oostendorp,R_Globalization and the Gender Wage Gap[J]. World Bank Economic Review,2010,23(1).
[12]Finnoff,Kade. Decomposing Inequality&Poverty in Post-War Rwanda:The Role of Gender,Education,Wealth and Location[J].Development Southern Africa,2015,32(2):200-228.
[13]Horrace,W. C.,&Oaxaca,R. L.. Inter-Industry Wage Differentials and the Gender Wage Gap:An Identification Problem[J]. Industrial and Labour Relations Review, 2001,54(3):611-618.
[14] Bastos, A., Casaca, S. F., Nunes F., et al. Women and Poverty:A Gender-Sensitive Approach[J]. The Journal of Socio-Economics,2009,38(5):764-778.
[15] Lopes,M. C.,Perista,H.. Trends and Prospects for Women's Employment,Interim Report-Portugal,Experts Group on the Position of Women in the Labour Market[Z]. 1995.
[16]Bruegel,I.. Women a Reserve Army of Labor:A Note on Recent British Experience[J]. Feminist Review,1919,(3):12-23.
[17]Misra,J. Class,Race,and Gender and Theorizing Welfare States[J]. Research in Political Sociology,2002,(11):19-52.
[18]McCall,L.. Complex Inequality[M]. New York:Routledge,2001.
[19]Bussemaker,J.,van Kersbergen,K_Contemporary Social-Capitalist Welfare States and Gender Inequality[A]. In Sainsbury,D.(Ed.). Gender and Welfare State Regimes[C]. New York:Oxford University Press, 1999.
[20]Meyers,M. K.,Gornick,J.. Gendering Welfare State Variation:Income Transfers,Employment Supports,and Family Poverty[A]. In Hirschmann, N., Liebert, U.(Eds.). Women and Welfare:Theory and Practice in the United States and Europe[C]. NJ:Rutgers University Press,2001.
[21]金一虹.农村妇女发展的资源约束与支持[J].浙江学刊,2000,(6).
[22]杜芳琴.贫困中的妇女发展:社会性别与差异[J].思想战线,2003,(5).
[23]郭瑞香.贫困与受艾滋病影响的妇女[A].赵群、王云仙主编.社会性别与妇女反贫困[C].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2011.
[24]王冬梅、罗汝敏.健康方面的性别不平等与贫困[J].妇女研究论丛,2005,(12).
[25]徐静莉.离婚妇女贫困化的制度探讨[J].妇女研究论丛,2009,(3).
[26]祝平燕、王芳.风险社会学视角下离婚妇女贫困化问题探析[J].中华女子学院学报,2010,(5).
[27]叶普万、贾慧咏.中国农村妇女贫困的现状、原因及解决对策[J].理论学刊,2010,(9).
[28]项卫星、柳阳.城市贫困女性权益缺失的制度经济学分析[J].人口学刊,2007,(4).
[29]蒋美华.农村已婚女性贫困状况及脱贫对策——以河南农村已婚女性为例[J].中州学刊,2007,(1).
[30]王婧.边缘与困境中的女性——妇女贫困问题的社会与文化分析[J].妇女研究论丛,2003,(S1).
[31]蔡荷芳.农村贫困妇女与脱贫妇女发展意识的对比分析——以安徽省池州市为例[J].农业经济问题,2005,(8).
[32]赵群.将社会性别平等观念纳入农村反贫困政策与实践的主流[J].妇女研究论丛,2005,(S1).
[33]王增文.农村老年女性贫困的决定因素分析——基于Cox比例风险模型的研究视角[J].中国人口科学,2010,(1).
[34]张晓颖.流动妇女多维贫困分析——基于北京市451名家政服务从业人员的调查[J].经济评论,2016,(3).
[35]陈银娥.贫困变动及其影响因素研究:来自中国女户主的证据[J].湖北社会科学,2014,(4).
[36]Sen,A.. Development as Freedom[M]. New York:Knopf, 1999.
[37]Robeyns,I.. Sen's Capability Approach and Gender Inequality:Selecting Relevant Capabilities[J]. Feminist Economics,2003,9(2-3):61-92.
[38]Bastos,A.,Nunes,F..Child Poverty-Dimensions And Dynamics[J]. Childhood,2009,16(1):67-87.
[39]汪雁、慈勤英.对城市贫困主流测量方法理论假定的社会性别分析——以一个街道贫困家庭的社会调查为例[J].妇女研究论丛,2004,(3).
[40]谢宇、张晓波、李建新等.中国民生发展报告2013[R].北京:北京大学出版社,2013.
[41]韩秀兰.中国居民家庭夫妻收人差异研究[J].统计研究,2012,(10).
[42]马磊.同类婚还是异质婚?——当前中国婚姻匹配模式分析[J].人口与发展,2015,(3).
[43]高颖、张秀兰.北京市近年婚配状况的特征及分析[J].中国人口科学,2011,(6).
[44]Klasen,S; Pro-Poor Growth And Gender Inequality[A]. In L. Menkhoff(Ed.). Pro-Poor Growth Policy And Evidence[C]. Berlin:Duncker&Humblot,2006.
[45]Seguino,S.. Gender Inequality and Economic Growth:A Cross-Country Analysis[J]. World Development,2000,28(7):1211-1230.
(1)该理论认为家庭中两性不同的劳动分工,是两性对各自投资的成本收益进行权衡比较后,而进行的理性家庭投资组合决策。出于收益最大化的理性原则,男性选择对个人职业发展有益的人力资本进行更多投资,而女性则优先考虑在家庭/家务活动中进行投入(Blau,F.,et al.,The Economics of Women,Men and Work,New Jersey:Pearson Prentice Hall,2006;Ehrenberg,R. and Smith R., Modern Labor Economics:Theory and Public Policy,Person Addison Wesley,2006)。
(2)低保标准数据来自于2014年中国民政统计年鉴。
(3)研究采用联立方程的方法,检测了个体收入和婚姻间有可能存在的内生性问题,即个体收入和婚姻之间是否发生着互为因果的关系。具体构建的方程为“lowincome=α_0+α_1 marriage+α_2x_i+μ_i(1)”,“marriage=β_0+β_1 lowincome+β_2x_k+μ_k(2)”。收入方程为公式(1),其中marriage表示是否已婚,X_i是影个体收入不足的其它控制变量,μ_i是随机误差项;婚姻方程为公式(2),其中lowincome表示收人不足,X_k表示其它影响婚姻的控制变量,μ_k为随机误差项。具体检验步骤如下:首先,作marriage对lowincome的logit回归,得到marriage的估计值marriage_hat和残差值u'。其次,作lowincome对marriage_hat和u'的logit回归,并对u'的系数作t检验。检验结果显示u'不显著,表明个体收入和婚姻间不存在内生性问题。
[2]第三期中国妇女社会地位调查课题组.第三期中国妇女社会地位抽样调查主要数据报告[J]·妇女研究论丛,2011,(6).
[3]Blau,F.,Ferber,M.,Winkler,A.,The Economics of Women,Men and Work[M]. New Jersey:Pearson Prentice-Hall,2006.
[4] Ehrenberg,R.,Smith,R.. Modern Labor Economics:Theory and Public Policy[M]. Pearson Addison Wesley,2006.
[5]Koeber,C., Wright,D. W.. Gender Differences in the Reemployment Status of Displaced Workers Human Capital as Signals that Mitigate Effects of Bias[J]. Journal of Socio-Economics, 2006,35(5):780-796.
[6] Abhishek Kumar. Urban Poverty and Utilization of Maternal and Child Health Care Services in India[J]. Journal of Biosocial Science,2013,45(4):433-449.
[7]Pearce,D. The Feminization of Poverty:Women,Work and Welfare[J]. The Urban and Social Science Review,1978,11:28-36.
[8]Moghadam,V.M.. Globalizing Women:Transnational Feminist Networks[M]. Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2005.
[9] Sainsbury, D.. Gender and Welfare State Regimes[M]. New York:Oxford University Press, 1999.
[10] Steven Pressman. Feminist Explanations for the Feminization of Poverty[J]. Journal of Economic Issue,2003,37(2):353-361.
[11] Oostendorp,R_Globalization and the Gender Wage Gap[J]. World Bank Economic Review,2010,23(1).
[12]Finnoff,Kade. Decomposing Inequality&Poverty in Post-War Rwanda:The Role of Gender,Education,Wealth and Location[J].Development Southern Africa,2015,32(2):200-228.
[13]Horrace,W. C.,&Oaxaca,R. L.. Inter-Industry Wage Differentials and the Gender Wage Gap:An Identification Problem[J]. Industrial and Labour Relations Review, 2001,54(3):611-618.
[14] Bastos, A., Casaca, S. F., Nunes F., et al. Women and Poverty:A Gender-Sensitive Approach[J]. The Journal of Socio-Economics,2009,38(5):764-778.
[15] Lopes,M. C.,Perista,H.. Trends and Prospects for Women's Employment,Interim Report-Portugal,Experts Group on the Position of Women in the Labour Market[Z]. 1995.
[16]Bruegel,I.. Women a Reserve Army of Labor:A Note on Recent British Experience[J]. Feminist Review,1919,(3):12-23.
[17]Misra,J. Class,Race,and Gender and Theorizing Welfare States[J]. Research in Political Sociology,2002,(11):19-52.
[18]McCall,L.. Complex Inequality[M]. New York:Routledge,2001.
[19]Bussemaker,J.,van Kersbergen,K_Contemporary Social-Capitalist Welfare States and Gender Inequality[A]. In Sainsbury,D.(Ed.). Gender and Welfare State Regimes[C]. New York:Oxford University Press, 1999.
[20]Meyers,M. K.,Gornick,J.. Gendering Welfare State Variation:Income Transfers,Employment Supports,and Family Poverty[A]. In Hirschmann, N., Liebert, U.(Eds.). Women and Welfare:Theory and Practice in the United States and Europe[C]. NJ:Rutgers University Press,2001.
[21]金一虹.农村妇女发展的资源约束与支持[J].浙江学刊,2000,(6).
[22]杜芳琴.贫困中的妇女发展:社会性别与差异[J].思想战线,2003,(5).
[23]郭瑞香.贫困与受艾滋病影响的妇女[A].赵群、王云仙主编.社会性别与妇女反贫困[C].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2011.
[24]王冬梅、罗汝敏.健康方面的性别不平等与贫困[J].妇女研究论丛,2005,(12).
[25]徐静莉.离婚妇女贫困化的制度探讨[J].妇女研究论丛,2009,(3).
[26]祝平燕、王芳.风险社会学视角下离婚妇女贫困化问题探析[J].中华女子学院学报,2010,(5).
[27]叶普万、贾慧咏.中国农村妇女贫困的现状、原因及解决对策[J].理论学刊,2010,(9).
[28]项卫星、柳阳.城市贫困女性权益缺失的制度经济学分析[J].人口学刊,2007,(4).
[29]蒋美华.农村已婚女性贫困状况及脱贫对策——以河南农村已婚女性为例[J].中州学刊,2007,(1).
[30]王婧.边缘与困境中的女性——妇女贫困问题的社会与文化分析[J].妇女研究论丛,2003,(S1).
[31]蔡荷芳.农村贫困妇女与脱贫妇女发展意识的对比分析——以安徽省池州市为例[J].农业经济问题,2005,(8).
[32]赵群.将社会性别平等观念纳入农村反贫困政策与实践的主流[J].妇女研究论丛,2005,(S1).
[33]王增文.农村老年女性贫困的决定因素分析——基于Cox比例风险模型的研究视角[J].中国人口科学,2010,(1).
[34]张晓颖.流动妇女多维贫困分析——基于北京市451名家政服务从业人员的调查[J].经济评论,2016,(3).
[35]陈银娥.贫困变动及其影响因素研究:来自中国女户主的证据[J].湖北社会科学,2014,(4).
[36]Sen,A.. Development as Freedom[M]. New York:Knopf, 1999.
[37]Robeyns,I.. Sen's Capability Approach and Gender Inequality:Selecting Relevant Capabilities[J]. Feminist Economics,2003,9(2-3):61-92.
[38]Bastos,A.,Nunes,F..Child Poverty-Dimensions And Dynamics[J]. Childhood,2009,16(1):67-87.
[39]汪雁、慈勤英.对城市贫困主流测量方法理论假定的社会性别分析——以一个街道贫困家庭的社会调查为例[J].妇女研究论丛,2004,(3).
[40]谢宇、张晓波、李建新等.中国民生发展报告2013[R].北京:北京大学出版社,2013.
[41]韩秀兰.中国居民家庭夫妻收人差异研究[J].统计研究,2012,(10).
[42]马磊.同类婚还是异质婚?——当前中国婚姻匹配模式分析[J].人口与发展,2015,(3).
[43]高颖、张秀兰.北京市近年婚配状况的特征及分析[J].中国人口科学,2011,(6).
[44]Klasen,S; Pro-Poor Growth And Gender Inequality[A]. In L. Menkhoff(Ed.). Pro-Poor Growth Policy And Evidence[C]. Berlin:Duncker&Humblot,2006.
[45]Seguino,S.. Gender Inequality and Economic Growth:A Cross-Country Analysis[J]. World Development,2000,28(7):1211-1230.
(1)该理论认为家庭中两性不同的劳动分工,是两性对各自投资的成本收益进行权衡比较后,而进行的理性家庭投资组合决策。出于收益最大化的理性原则,男性选择对个人职业发展有益的人力资本进行更多投资,而女性则优先考虑在家庭/家务活动中进行投入(Blau,F.,et al.,The Economics of Women,Men and Work,New Jersey:Pearson Prentice Hall,2006;Ehrenberg,R. and Smith R., Modern Labor Economics:Theory and Public Policy,Person Addison Wesley,2006)。
(2)低保标准数据来自于2014年中国民政统计年鉴。
(3)研究采用联立方程的方法,检测了个体收入和婚姻间有可能存在的内生性问题,即个体收入和婚姻之间是否发生着互为因果的关系。具体构建的方程为“lowincome=α_0+α_1 marriage+α_2x_i+μ_i(1)”,“marriage=β_0+β_1 lowincome+β_2x_k+μ_k(2)”。收入方程为公式(1),其中marriage表示是否已婚,X_i是影个体收入不足的其它控制变量,μ_i是随机误差项;婚姻方程为公式(2),其中lowincome表示收人不足,X_k表示其它影响婚姻的控制变量,μ_k为随机误差项。具体检验步骤如下:首先,作marriage对lowincome的logit回归,得到marriage的估计值marriage_hat和残差值u'。其次,作lowincome对marriage_hat和u'的logit回归,并对u'的系数作t检验。检验结果显示u'不显著,表明个体收入和婚姻间不存在内生性问题。