儿童早期的母亲生活压力对其5岁行为问题的预测效应:链式中介分析
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摘要
通过对107名幼儿及其母亲历时5年的5次追踪测量,考察了儿童早期(9～38个月)母亲生活压力对5岁时儿童行为问题的预测效应及其作用机制。结果发现,在儿童早期,母亲生活压力具有相对的稳定性,但引起母亲生活压力的主要生活事件排序有所变化;儿童早期母亲生活压力对儿童行为问题的作用机制有两种方式:一方面表现为母亲生活压力对儿童5岁时的情绪症状和品行问题的直接效应;另一方面表现为通过减少母亲积极养育行为进一步影响儿童情绪症状和同伴问题的间接效应;此外,儿童早期母亲生活压力还通过积极养育和儿童努力控制的链式中介作用对儿童过度活跃和亲社会行为产生影响。结论:母亲生活压力对儿童行为问题具有预测效应,这种效应的机制包括母亲生活压力的直接效应以及通过积极养育、努力控制的间接效应。
As the primary caregiver, mothers have the most frequent interactions with children and display the most significant influence on children's development. If mothers experience intense life event stress, they may create a stressful environment for their children's early development. Living in such a developmental environment raises children's risk of behavior problems in later childhood. Regarding the predictive effects of maternal stress on child outcomes, two compensatory models are differentiated in previous research: one is the direct effect model, which emphasizes on the direct impact of parenting stress on children's maladjustment; and the other one is the indirect effect model, which focuses on the mediating roles of parenting practices and child self-regulation in the associations between parenting stress and child behavioral problems. However, in contemporary Chinese society, urban mothers face different sources of stress in their daily life. Maternal life event stress represents a more comprehensive and ecologically-validated assessment of maternal stress in the modern China, than maternal parenting stress assessed solely. But it is still unclear that whether those models about parenting stress are applicable to maternal life event stress. Based on Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory, we focused on the direct and indirect effects of maternal life event stress throughout infancy and toddlerhood on child behavioral problems at preschool in this longitudinal study. Three research questions were examined: 1) Which life events are the main stressors for urban mothers during their children's infancy and toddlerhood periods; 2) Does maternal life event stress in these periods exert a long-term direct effect on preschoolers' behavioral problems; 3) Does maternal life event stress also impact preschoolers' behavioral problems through parenting practices and children's self-regulation? 107 families(50 boys and 57 girls) were recruited from the local communities and child care clinics in urban areas of Beijing. During this five-year longitudinal study, questionnaires were distributed to the mothers at five waves of assessments. At 9, 14, 25, and 38 months, data on maternal life event stress were collected through maternal reports on the Life Event Scale. When children were 61 months, mothers rated children's behavioral problems and prosocial behaviors by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and child effortful control by the Children's Behavior Questionnaire-Short Form, and reported their positive parenting practices on the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. The results showed that the most frequent negative life events included housing shortage, stress from work and studying, family members being seriously ill or injured, problems with spouse's parents, difficulty with caring for the child, and low quality in marital relationship. Although the correlation coefficients between the maternal life event stress at the adjacent time points were moderate, the top ranked stressor varied slightly when children were at the different ages. At 9 months, housing shortage ranked the highest, whereas at 3 years old, difficulty with caring for the child ranked the highest, and the stress from low quality in marital relationship rose up. Furthermore, structural equation models showed that maternal life event stress across 9 to 38 months impacted children's behavioral problems at 61 months in two ways. First, there were direct effects of maternal life event stress on preschoolers' emotional symptoms and conduct problems. Second, the indirect effects included that the indirect effect of maternal life event stress on preschoolers' emotional symptoms and peer problems through maternal positive parenting practices, and the chained mediating effect through maternal positive parenting practices and then child effortful control between maternal life event stress and preschoolers' hyperactivity problems and prosocial behaviors. This study indicated two underlying mechanisms of maternal life event stress throughout early development on preschoolers' behavior problems, including the direct influence and indirect influence through positive parenting practices and child effortful control. These findings suggested that children's development was impeded in an early developmental environment where mothers were suffering from the stresses of intense negative life events, particularly for children's emotional regulation and behavioral conduct. Besides, the alternative indirect mechanism has also been found that positive parenting practices and child effortful control were disrupted by maternal life event stress, which, in turn, increased children's risks of attentional deficit symptoms and antisocial behaviors. The current study, thus, provided the empirical support for the non-negligible harm to children's adjustment from maternal life event stress in early childhood. Overall, maternal life event stress might increase the risk of behavior problems. This alerts us that it is necessary to identify the high-risk families in the community samples and conduct effective intervention as early as possible.
As the primary caregiver, mothers have the most frequent interactions with children and display the most significant influence on children's development. If mothers experience intense life event stress, they may create a stressful environment for their children's early development. Living in such a developmental environment raises children's risk of behavior problems in later childhood. Regarding the predictive effects of maternal stress on child outcomes, two compensatory models are differentiated in previous research: one is the direct effect model, which emphasizes on the direct impact of parenting stress on children's maladjustment; and the other one is the indirect effect model, which focuses on the mediating roles of parenting practices and child self-regulation in the associations between parenting stress and child behavioral problems. However, in contemporary Chinese society, urban mothers face different sources of stress in their daily life. Maternal life event stress represents a more comprehensive and ecologically-validated assessment of maternal stress in the modern China, than maternal parenting stress assessed solely. But it is still unclear that whether those models about parenting stress are applicable to maternal life event stress. Based on Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory, we focused on the direct and indirect effects of maternal life event stress throughout infancy and toddlerhood on child behavioral problems at preschool in this longitudinal study. Three research questions were examined: 1) Which life events are the main stressors for urban mothers during their children's infancy and toddlerhood periods; 2) Does maternal life event stress in these periods exert a long-term direct effect on preschoolers' behavioral problems; 3) Does maternal life event stress also impact preschoolers' behavioral problems through parenting practices and children's self-regulation? 107 families(50 boys and 57 girls) were recruited from the local communities and child care clinics in urban areas of Beijing. During this five-year longitudinal study, questionnaires were distributed to the mothers at five waves of assessments. At 9, 14, 25, and 38 months, data on maternal life event stress were collected through maternal reports on the Life Event Scale. When children were 61 months, mothers rated children's behavioral problems and prosocial behaviors by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and child effortful control by the Children's Behavior Questionnaire-Short Form, and reported their positive parenting practices on the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. The results showed that the most frequent negative life events included housing shortage, stress from work and studying, family members being seriously ill or injured, problems with spouse's parents, difficulty with caring for the child, and low quality in marital relationship. Although the correlation coefficients between the maternal life event stress at the adjacent time points were moderate, the top ranked stressor varied slightly when children were at the different ages. At 9 months, housing shortage ranked the highest, whereas at 3 years old, difficulty with caring for the child ranked the highest, and the stress from low quality in marital relationship rose up. Furthermore, structural equation models showed that maternal life event stress across 9 to 38 months impacted children's behavioral problems at 61 months in two ways. First, there were direct effects of maternal life event stress on preschoolers' emotional symptoms and conduct problems. Second, the indirect effects included that the indirect effect of maternal life event stress on preschoolers' emotional symptoms and peer problems through maternal positive parenting practices, and the chained mediating effect through maternal positive parenting practices and then child effortful control between maternal life event stress and preschoolers' hyperactivity problems and prosocial behaviors. This study indicated two underlying mechanisms of maternal life event stress throughout early development on preschoolers' behavior problems, including the direct influence and indirect influence through positive parenting practices and child effortful control. These findings suggested that children's development was impeded in an early developmental environment where mothers were suffering from the stresses of intense negative life events, particularly for children's emotional regulation and behavioral conduct. Besides, the alternative indirect mechanism has also been found that positive parenting practices and child effortful control were disrupted by maternal life event stress, which, in turn, increased children's risks of attentional deficit symptoms and antisocial behaviors. The current study, thus, provided the empirical support for the non-negligible harm to children's adjustment from maternal life event stress in early childhood. Overall, maternal life event stress might increase the risk of behavior problems. This alerts us that it is necessary to identify the high-risk families in the community samples and conduct effective intervention as early as possible.
引文
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Chang,H.,Olson,S.L.,Sameroff,A.J.,&Sexton,H.R.(2011).Child effortful control as a mediator of parenting practices on externalizing behavior:Evidence for a sex-differentiated pathway across the transition from preschool to school.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,39(1),71-81.
Chang,H.,Shaw,D.S.,Dishion,T.J.,Gardner,F.,&Wilson,M.N.(2015).Proactive parenting and children's effortful control:Mediating role of language and indirect intervention effects.Social Development,24(1),206-223.
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Clerkin,S.M.,Marks,D.J.,Policaro,K.L.,&Halperin,J.M.(2007).Psychometric properties of the Alabama parenting questionnaire-preschool revision.Journal of Clinical Child&Adolescent Psychology,36(1),19-28.
Connell,A.M.,&Goodman,S.H.(2002).The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems:Ameta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin,128(5),746-773.
Crnic,K.A.,Gaze,C.,&Hoffman,C.(2005).Cumulative parenting stress across the preschool period:Relations to maternal parenting and child behaviour at age 5.Infant and Child Development,14(2),117-132.
Dong,S.H.,Liang,X.,Zhang,Y.,&Wang,Z.Y.(2017).Maternal positive parenting behaviors and toddler’s compliance:Prediction from maternal sensitivity in infancy and bidirectional effects of autonomy encouragement in toddlerhood.Acta Psychologica Sinica,49(4),460-471.[董书阳,梁熙,张莹,王争艳.(2017).母亲积极养育行为对儿童顺从行为的早期预测与双向作用:从婴儿到学步儿.心理学报,49(4),460-471.]
Evans,G.W.,&Kim,P.(2013).Childhood poverty,chronic stress,self-regulation,and coping.Child Development Perspectives,7(1),43-48.
Gartstein,M.A.,Bridgett,D.J.,Young,B.N.,Panksepp,J.,&Power,T.(2013).Origins of effortful control:Infant and parent contributions.Infancy,18(2),149-183.
Goodman,R.(2001).Psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,40(11),1337-1345.
Gulley,L.D.,Hankin,B.L.,&Young,J.F.(2015).Risk for depression and anxiety in youth:The interaction between negative affectivity,effortful control,and stressors.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,44(2),207-218.
Hanson,J.L.,Nacewicz,B.M.,Sutterer,M.J.,Cayo,A.A.,Schaefer,S.M.,&Rudolph,K.D.,…Davidson,R.J.(2015).Behavior problems after early life stress:Contributions of the hippocampus and amygdala.Biological Psychiatry,77(4),314-323.
Hibel,L.C.,Mercado,E.,&Trumbell,J.M.(2012).Parenting stressors and morning cortisol in a sample of working mothers.Journal of Family Psychology,26(5),738-746.
Howell,K.H.,Barrett-Becker,E.P.,Burnside,A.N.,Wamser-Nanney,R.,Layne,C.M.,&Kaplow,J.B.(2016).Children facing parental cancer versus parental death:The buffering effects of positive parenting and emotional expression.Journal of Child and Family Studies,25(1),152-164.
Kochanska,G.,&Kim,S.(2014).A complex interplay among the parent-child relationship,effortful control,and internalized,rule-compatible conduct in young children:Evidence from two studies.Developmental Psychology,50(1),8-21.
Kou,J.H.,Du,Y.S.,&Xia,L.M.(2005).Reliability and validity of“children strengths and difficulties questionnaire”in shanghai norm.Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry,17(1),25-28.[寇建华,杜亚松,夏黎明.(2005).儿童长处和困难问卷(父母版)上海常模的信度和效度.上海精神医学,17(1),25-28.]
Lake,A.,&Chan,M.(2014).Putting science into practice for early child development.Lancet,385(9980),1816-1817.
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