领土变更、公民投票以及反对分离——基于国际社会22个主要公投案例的考察
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摘要
二战以来,领土变更公投成为殖民地等非自治地区行使自决权并走向独立建国的重要途径。随着时间的推移,目前有三种进行领土变更公投的情形,即非自治领、未被殖民化的占领地以及分离主义地区。领土变更公投主要包括自决性公投、民主性公投和混合性公投,三者之间既有交叉也有区隔,都需要具备一定的要件。本来,只有自决性公投才是领土变更的合法支撑,但随着分离主义的发展,自决性公投已然走形,极少民主性公投也给其开了先例。分离主义对自决权措置与滥用的案例屡见不鲜,使得主权国家反对分离问题的任务更加严峻。文章通过对国际社会22个主要案例的考察和比较,认为拒绝给予分离公投权利、排除大国干扰、善用国际法和强化国家能力等是遏制分离主义势头的关键。
引文
[1][意]安东尼奥·卡塞斯.国际法[M].蔡从燕,等,译.北京:法律出版社,2009.
[2] 王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007.
[3] 王英津.国际领土变更公投案例研究[M].北京:九州出版社,2019.
[4] 陈隆志,陈文贤.国际社会公民投票的类型与实践[C].台北:财团法人台湾新世纪文教基金会、台湾联合国研究中心,2011.
[5] 朱毓朝.国际法和国际政治中的分离主义[J].国际政治科学,2005(2).
[6] Patrick J Monahan et al.Coming to Terms with Plan B:Ten Principles Governing Secession[J].CD Howe Institute Commentary,1996,83.
[7] Allen Buchanan.Theories of Secession[J].Philosophy and Public Affairs,1997,26(1).
[8] Hurst Hannum.Rethinking Self-Determination[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1993,34(1).
[9] Jaroslav Tir,Philip Schafer,Paul F Diehl,Gary Goertz.Territorial Changes,1816—1996:Procedures and Data[J].Conflict Management and Peace Science,1998,16(1).
[10] Montserrat Guibernau.Self-determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Ethnopolitics,2015,14(5).
[11] Michel Seymour.Secession as a remedial right[J].Inquiry:An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy,2007,50(4).
[12] Roland Vaubel.Secession in the European Union[J].Economic Affairs,2013,33(3).
[13] Lea Brilmayer.Secession and self-Determination:A Territorial Interpretation[J].Yale Journal of International Law,1991,16(1).
[14] Gerry J Simpson.The Diffusion of Sovereignty:Self-Determination in the Post-Colonial Age[J].Stanford Journal of International Law,1996,32(2).
[15] Russell A Miller.Self-Determination in International Law and the Demise of Democracy[J].Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,2003,41(3).
[16] Gregory H Fox.Self-Determination in the Post-Cold War Era:A New Internal Focus?[J].Michigan Journal of International Law,1995,16(3).
[17] Hurst Hannum.The Right of Self-Determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Washington and Lee Law Review,1998,55(3).
[18] Milena Sterio.On the Right to External Self-Determination:“Selfistans,” Secession,and the Great Powers’ Rule[J].Minnesota Journal of International Law,2010,19(1).
[19] Aleksandar Pavkovic.In Pursuit of Sovereignty and Self-Determination:Peoples,States and Secession in the International Order[J].Macquarie Law Journal,2003,3(1).
[20] Benyamin Neuberger.National Self-determination:A theoretical discussion[J].Nationalities Papers,2001,29(3).
[21] Paul R Williams,Francesca J Pecci.Earned Sovereignty:Bridging the Gap between Sovereignty and Self-Determination[J].Stanford Journal of International Law,2004,40(1).
[22] Joshua Castellino.Territorial Integrity and the ‘Right’ to Self-Determination:An Examination of the Conceptual Tools[J].Brooklyn Journal of International Law,2008,33(2).
[23] Boutros Boutros-Ghali.An Agenda for Peace Preventive Diplomacy,Peacemaking and Peace-keeping[J].International Relations,1992,11(3).
[24] Eisuke Suzuki.Self-Determination and World Public Order:Community Response to Territorial Separation[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1976,16(4).
[25] Susanna Mancini.Rethinking the boundaries of democratic secession:Liberalism,nationalism,and the right of minorities to self-determination[J].International Journal of Constitutional Law,2008,6(3-4).
[26] Sia Spiliopoulou ?kermark.Internal Self-Determination and the Role of Territorial Autonomy as a Tool for the Resolution of Ethno-Political Disputes[J].International Journal on Minority and Group Right,2013,20(1).
[27] Robert Jennings,Arthur Watts.Oppenheim’s International Law,Volume I[M].Harlow:Longman,1992.
[28] Vaughan Lowe,Malgosia Fitzmaurice.Fifty years of the International Court of Justice[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1996.
[29] Gary Goertz,Paul F Diehl.Territorial Changes and International Conflict[M].London and New York:Routledge,1992.
[30] Milena Sterio.The Right to Self-Determination under International Law[M].New York:Routledge,2013.
[31] Michel Rosenfeld,Andras Sajo.The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Law[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002.
(1)Robert Jennings and Arthur Watts.Oppenheim’s International Law[M].Volume I.Harlow:Longman,1992:679-718.
(2)Vaughan Lowe and Malgosia Fitzmaurice.Fifty years of the International Court of Justice[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1996:237-238.
(3)Gary Goertz and Paul F Diehl.Territorial Changes and International Conflict[M].London and New York:Routledge,1992:36.
(4)Jaroslav Tir,Philip Schafer,Paul F Diehl and Gary Goertz.Territorial Changes,1816-1996:Procedures and Data[J].Conflict Management and Peace Science,1998,16(1):94-95.
(5)Gerry J Simpson.The Diffusion of Sovereignty:Self-Determination in the Post-Colonial Age[J].Stanford Journal of International Law,1996,32(2):265-271.
(6)Lea Brilmayer.Secession and Self-Determination:A Territorial Interpretation[J].Yale Journal of International Law,1991,16(1):177-202;Kai Nielsen.Secession:The Case of Quebec[J].Journal of Applied Philosophy,1993,10(1):29-43;Roland Vaubel.Secession in the European Union[J].Economic Affairs,2013,33(3):288-302.
(7)Eisuke Suzuki.Self-Determination and World Public Order:Community Response to Territorial Separation[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1976,16(4):779-862;Hurst Hannum.Rethinking Self-Determination[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1993,34(1):1-69;Gregory H Fox.Self-Determination in the Post-Cold War Era:A New Internal Focus[J].Michigan Journal of International Law,1995,16(3):733-781;Russell A Miller.Self-Determination in International Law and the Demise of Democracy[J].Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,2003,41(3):601-648;Montserrat Guibernau.Self-determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Ethnopolitics,2015,14(5):540-546.
(8)Allen Buchanan.Theories of Secession[J].Philosophy and Public Affairs,1997,26(1):31-61;Michel Seymour.Secession as a remedial right[J].Inquiry:An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy,2007,50(4):395-423;Milena Sterio.The Right to Self-Determination under International Law[N].New York:Routledge,2013.
(9)美国学者卡塞斯就是这一理论的重要推手,详见:Antonio Cassese.Self-determination of Peoples,A legal Reappraisal[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995.
(10)经笔者在国内外相关数据库的检索发现,专门探讨领土变更公投的文章十分稀少,故而此处省去相关的文献介绍。
(11)具体可参见联合国大会决议,http://www.un.org/zh/sections/documents/general-assembly-resolutions/。
(12)[意]安东尼奥·卡塞斯.国际法[M].蔡从燕,等,译.北京:法律出版社,2009:85.
(13)这三个公投案例的详细解析可参见:王英津.波罗的海三国公民投票[A].杨晶华.萨尔区公民投票[A].韩碧舟.直布罗陀公民投票[A].王英津,等,著.国际领土变更公投案例研究[C].北京:九州出版社,2019:80-125.
(14)[意]安东尼奥·卡塞斯.国际法[M].蔡从燕,等,译.北京:法律出版社,2009:83.
(15)Charter of the United Nations[EB/OL].http://www.un.org/zh/charter-united-nations/.
(16)需要注意的是,波多黎各因内部高度自治而没有在联合国的非自治领名单上,但其主权归属问题仍不明确,故在本文中,仍将其视为非殖民化的一部分。
(17)朱毓朝.国际法和国际政治中的分离主义[J].国际政治科学,2005(2):75.
(18)Patrick J Monahan et al.Coming to Terms with Plan B:Ten Principles Governing Secession[J].CD Howe Institute Commentary,1996 (83):1-56.
(19)三种分类可参见王英津等著.国际领土变更公投案例研究[M].北京:九州出版社,2019.
(20)王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:208-209.
(21)林明峻.领土转移的公民投票与国际法[A].//载陈隆志,陈文贤,主编.国际社会公民投票的类型与实践[C].台北:财团法人台湾新世纪文教基金会、台湾联合国研究中心,2011:150.
(22)Treaty of Versailles,Article 50 (34)[EB/OL].https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000002-0043.pdf。
(23)王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:221.
(24)Hurst Hannum.Rethinking Self-Determination[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1993,34(1):33.
(25)自决性公投与民主性公投的分类依据、区别以及意义可参见:王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:214-218.
(26)Michel Rosenfeld and Andras Sajo.The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Law[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002:501-502.
(27)王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:221.
(28)混合性公投的划分主要是来自于中国人民大学王英津教授的观点,此小段部分内容是笔者对其整理和提炼的结果。
(29)Yves Beigbeder.Referendum,Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,2015:2.
(30)Russell A Miller.Self-Determination in International Law and the Demise of Democracy[J].Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,2003,41(3):625.
(31)Gregory H Fox.Self-Determination in the Post-Cold War Era:A New Internal Focus[J].Michigan Journal of International Law,1995,16(3):734.
(32)Hurst Hannum.The Right of Self-Determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Washington and Lee Law Review,1998,55(3):776-777.
(33)Milena Sterio.On the Right to External Self-Determination:“Selfistans”,Secession,and the Great Powers’ Rule[J].Minnesota Journal of International Law,2010,9(1):143.
(34)Allen Buchanan.Justice,Legitimacy,and Self-Determination:Moral Foundations for International Law[M].New York:Oxford University Press,2004:436.
(35)Aleksandar Pavkovic.In Pursuit of Sovereignty and Self-Determination:Peoples,States and Secession in the International Order[J].Macquarie Law Journal,2003,3(1):11.
(36)Benyamin Neuberger.National self-determination:A theoretical discussion[J].Nationalities Papers,2001,29(3):406.
(37)Russell A Miller.Self-Determination in International Law and the Demise of Democracy[J].Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,2003,41(3):631.
(38)Sia Spiliopoulou ?kermark.Internal Self-Determination and the Role of Territorial Autonomy as a Tool for the Resolution of Ethno-Political Disputes[J].International Journal on Minority and Group Right,2013,20(1):21.
(39)Redie Bereketeab.Self-determination and secession:African challenges[A].//Redie Bereketeab,ed.Self-Determination and Secession in Africa:The post-colonial state[C].New York:Routledge,2015:4.
(40)Charles Tilly.Democracy[N].New York:Cambridge University Press,2007:16.
(41)Milena Sterio.On the Right to External Self-Determination:‘Selfistans,’ Secession,and the Great Powers’ Rule[J].Minnesota Journal of International Law,2010,19(1):176.
(42)Paul R Williams and Francesca J Pecci.Earned Sovereignty:Bridging the Gap between Sovereignty and Self-Determination[J].Stanford Journal of International Law,2004,40(1):349.
(43)Hurst Hannum.The Right of Self-Determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Washington and Lee Law Review,1998,55(3):776.
(44)Joshua Castellino.Territorial Integrity and the “Right” to Self-Determination:An Examination of the Conceptual Tools[J].Brooklyn Journal of International Law,2008,33(2):549.
(45)Boutros Boutros-Ghali.An Agenda for Peace Preventive Diplomacy,Peacemaking and Peace-keeping[J].International Relations,1992,11(3):204.
(46)Eisuke Suzuki.Self-Determination and World Public Order:Community Response to Territorial Separation[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1976,16(4):789.
(47)Susanna Mancini.Rethinking the boundaries of democratic secession:Liberalism,nationalism,and the right of minorities to self-determination[J].International Journal of Constitutional Law,2008,16(3-4):562.
(48)Daniel Thürer and Thomas Burri.Self-Determination,Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,2015:12.
(49)Jack L Snyder.From Voting to Violence:Democratization and Nationalist Conflict[M].New York:W W Norton & Company,2000:28-31.
(50)Joel S Migdal.Strong Societies and Weak States:State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World[M].New Jersey:Princeton University Press,1988:262.
[2] 王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007.
[3] 王英津.国际领土变更公投案例研究[M].北京:九州出版社,2019.
[4] 陈隆志,陈文贤.国际社会公民投票的类型与实践[C].台北:财团法人台湾新世纪文教基金会、台湾联合国研究中心,2011.
[5] 朱毓朝.国际法和国际政治中的分离主义[J].国际政治科学,2005(2).
[6] Patrick J Monahan et al.Coming to Terms with Plan B:Ten Principles Governing Secession[J].CD Howe Institute Commentary,1996,83.
[7] Allen Buchanan.Theories of Secession[J].Philosophy and Public Affairs,1997,26(1).
[8] Hurst Hannum.Rethinking Self-Determination[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1993,34(1).
[9] Jaroslav Tir,Philip Schafer,Paul F Diehl,Gary Goertz.Territorial Changes,1816—1996:Procedures and Data[J].Conflict Management and Peace Science,1998,16(1).
[10] Montserrat Guibernau.Self-determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Ethnopolitics,2015,14(5).
[11] Michel Seymour.Secession as a remedial right[J].Inquiry:An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy,2007,50(4).
[12] Roland Vaubel.Secession in the European Union[J].Economic Affairs,2013,33(3).
[13] Lea Brilmayer.Secession and self-Determination:A Territorial Interpretation[J].Yale Journal of International Law,1991,16(1).
[14] Gerry J Simpson.The Diffusion of Sovereignty:Self-Determination in the Post-Colonial Age[J].Stanford Journal of International Law,1996,32(2).
[15] Russell A Miller.Self-Determination in International Law and the Demise of Democracy[J].Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,2003,41(3).
[16] Gregory H Fox.Self-Determination in the Post-Cold War Era:A New Internal Focus?[J].Michigan Journal of International Law,1995,16(3).
[17] Hurst Hannum.The Right of Self-Determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Washington and Lee Law Review,1998,55(3).
[18] Milena Sterio.On the Right to External Self-Determination:“Selfistans,” Secession,and the Great Powers’ Rule[J].Minnesota Journal of International Law,2010,19(1).
[19] Aleksandar Pavkovic.In Pursuit of Sovereignty and Self-Determination:Peoples,States and Secession in the International Order[J].Macquarie Law Journal,2003,3(1).
[20] Benyamin Neuberger.National Self-determination:A theoretical discussion[J].Nationalities Papers,2001,29(3).
[21] Paul R Williams,Francesca J Pecci.Earned Sovereignty:Bridging the Gap between Sovereignty and Self-Determination[J].Stanford Journal of International Law,2004,40(1).
[22] Joshua Castellino.Territorial Integrity and the ‘Right’ to Self-Determination:An Examination of the Conceptual Tools[J].Brooklyn Journal of International Law,2008,33(2).
[23] Boutros Boutros-Ghali.An Agenda for Peace Preventive Diplomacy,Peacemaking and Peace-keeping[J].International Relations,1992,11(3).
[24] Eisuke Suzuki.Self-Determination and World Public Order:Community Response to Territorial Separation[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1976,16(4).
[25] Susanna Mancini.Rethinking the boundaries of democratic secession:Liberalism,nationalism,and the right of minorities to self-determination[J].International Journal of Constitutional Law,2008,6(3-4).
[26] Sia Spiliopoulou ?kermark.Internal Self-Determination and the Role of Territorial Autonomy as a Tool for the Resolution of Ethno-Political Disputes[J].International Journal on Minority and Group Right,2013,20(1).
[27] Robert Jennings,Arthur Watts.Oppenheim’s International Law,Volume I[M].Harlow:Longman,1992.
[28] Vaughan Lowe,Malgosia Fitzmaurice.Fifty years of the International Court of Justice[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1996.
[29] Gary Goertz,Paul F Diehl.Territorial Changes and International Conflict[M].London and New York:Routledge,1992.
[30] Milena Sterio.The Right to Self-Determination under International Law[M].New York:Routledge,2013.
[31] Michel Rosenfeld,Andras Sajo.The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Law[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002.
(1)Robert Jennings and Arthur Watts.Oppenheim’s International Law[M].Volume I.Harlow:Longman,1992:679-718.
(2)Vaughan Lowe and Malgosia Fitzmaurice.Fifty years of the International Court of Justice[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1996:237-238.
(3)Gary Goertz and Paul F Diehl.Territorial Changes and International Conflict[M].London and New York:Routledge,1992:36.
(4)Jaroslav Tir,Philip Schafer,Paul F Diehl and Gary Goertz.Territorial Changes,1816-1996:Procedures and Data[J].Conflict Management and Peace Science,1998,16(1):94-95.
(5)Gerry J Simpson.The Diffusion of Sovereignty:Self-Determination in the Post-Colonial Age[J].Stanford Journal of International Law,1996,32(2):265-271.
(6)Lea Brilmayer.Secession and Self-Determination:A Territorial Interpretation[J].Yale Journal of International Law,1991,16(1):177-202;Kai Nielsen.Secession:The Case of Quebec[J].Journal of Applied Philosophy,1993,10(1):29-43;Roland Vaubel.Secession in the European Union[J].Economic Affairs,2013,33(3):288-302.
(7)Eisuke Suzuki.Self-Determination and World Public Order:Community Response to Territorial Separation[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1976,16(4):779-862;Hurst Hannum.Rethinking Self-Determination[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1993,34(1):1-69;Gregory H Fox.Self-Determination in the Post-Cold War Era:A New Internal Focus[J].Michigan Journal of International Law,1995,16(3):733-781;Russell A Miller.Self-Determination in International Law and the Demise of Democracy[J].Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,2003,41(3):601-648;Montserrat Guibernau.Self-determination in the Twenty-First Century[J].Ethnopolitics,2015,14(5):540-546.
(8)Allen Buchanan.Theories of Secession[J].Philosophy and Public Affairs,1997,26(1):31-61;Michel Seymour.Secession as a remedial right[J].Inquiry:An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy,2007,50(4):395-423;Milena Sterio.The Right to Self-Determination under International Law[N].New York:Routledge,2013.
(9)美国学者卡塞斯就是这一理论的重要推手,详见:Antonio Cassese.Self-determination of Peoples,A legal Reappraisal[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995.
(10)经笔者在国内外相关数据库的检索发现,专门探讨领土变更公投的文章十分稀少,故而此处省去相关的文献介绍。
(11)具体可参见联合国大会决议,http://www.un.org/zh/sections/documents/general-assembly-resolutions/。
(12)[意]安东尼奥·卡塞斯.国际法[M].蔡从燕,等,译.北京:法律出版社,2009:85.
(13)这三个公投案例的详细解析可参见:王英津.波罗的海三国公民投票[A].杨晶华.萨尔区公民投票[A].韩碧舟.直布罗陀公民投票[A].王英津,等,著.国际领土变更公投案例研究[C].北京:九州出版社,2019:80-125.
(14)[意]安东尼奥·卡塞斯.国际法[M].蔡从燕,等,译.北京:法律出版社,2009:83.
(15)Charter of the United Nations[EB/OL].http://www.un.org/zh/charter-united-nations/.
(16)需要注意的是,波多黎各因内部高度自治而没有在联合国的非自治领名单上,但其主权归属问题仍不明确,故在本文中,仍将其视为非殖民化的一部分。
(17)朱毓朝.国际法和国际政治中的分离主义[J].国际政治科学,2005(2):75.
(18)Patrick J Monahan et al.Coming to Terms with Plan B:Ten Principles Governing Secession[J].CD Howe Institute Commentary,1996 (83):1-56.
(19)三种分类可参见王英津等著.国际领土变更公投案例研究[M].北京:九州出版社,2019.
(20)王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:208-209.
(21)林明峻.领土转移的公民投票与国际法[A].//载陈隆志,陈文贤,主编.国际社会公民投票的类型与实践[C].台北:财团法人台湾新世纪文教基金会、台湾联合国研究中心,2011:150.
(22)Treaty of Versailles,Article 50 (34)[EB/OL].https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000002-0043.pdf。
(23)王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:221.
(24)Hurst Hannum.Rethinking Self-Determination[J].Virginia Journal of International Law,1993,34(1):33.
(25)自决性公投与民主性公投的分类依据、区别以及意义可参见:王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:214-218.
(26)Michel Rosenfeld and Andras Sajo.The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Law[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002:501-502.
(27)王英津.自决权理论与公民投票[M].北京:九州出版社,2007:221.
(28)混合性公投的划分主要是来自于中国人民大学王英津教授的观点,此小段部分内容是笔者对其整理和提炼的结果。
(29)Yves Beigbeder.Referendum,Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,2015:2.
(30)Russell A Miller.Self-Determination in International Law and the Demise of Democracy[J].Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,2003,41(3):625.
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