从引人误认到引人困惑:经营者新型不当信息行为及其规制
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摘要
消费者困惑是由信息因素导致的、消费者在购买决策准备阶段出现的疑虑、不安的消极心理。造成消费者困惑的基本原因是信息过度供给和有效信息不足。本质上,消费者困惑就是作为生物个体的消费者的认知能力的有限性与商品/服务信息的无限和无序之间的矛盾。消费者困惑不仅会对消费者个人权益及其实现造成影响,还会因导致消费者决策偏差而损及市场机制;并会因导致消费者迟延决策乃至回避决策而抑制社会整体消费。市场经济的发达、互联网时代的到来,以及营销理论与实践的飞速发展是消费者困惑问题普遍化的社会基础;制造信息混乱、表述信息模糊、潜藏关键信息三类不当信息行为是引致消费者困惑的直接原因。既有欺诈禁止和虚假宣传禁止制度难以规制引致消费者困惑的行为。系统治理应明确经营者信息行为到达主义、真确原则和充要原则,完善现行相关法治各环节,并构筑多维的配套治理措施。治理引致消费者困惑行为实际上是对经营活动的深度规制,事关经营者经营自由和商业言论自由,应审慎确定规制立场与策略。
Consumer confusion is the doubtful,uneasy and negative psychological condition of consumers during the purchase decision preparation stage,caused by information factors.The fundamental reasons on consumer confusion lie on information overload and information insufficiency.In essence,consumer confusion comes from the contradiction between the limitation of the cognitive ability of human being and the infiniteness and disordering of goods and services information.Consumer confusion will not only affect consumer rights and interests,but also damage market mechanism through deviating consumer decision making.Besides,it can cause consumers to delay their decisions and even avoid decision,which will suppress the whole society consumption.The advancement of market economy,the advent of Internet Era,and the rapid development of marketing theory and practice are the social foundations of the generalization of consumer confusion problem.Information chaos,fuzzy expression and key information hiding are three improper practices causing consumer to confusion directly.Cheating prohibition system and false & misleading advertising prohibition system can't regulate those unfair practices.We should take Information Arrival,Information Truth & Clear and Information Sufficient & Necessary as principles of operator information obligation.It's also necessary to improve existing relevant rules and construct multi-dimensional supporting measures.Actually,regulation on unfair practices leading to consumer confusion is a type of deep regulation on business activities.It is related with operation freedom and commercial speech freedom.We should be careful and well-advised on regulation position and strategy determination.
Consumer confusion is the doubtful,uneasy and negative psychological condition of consumers during the purchase decision preparation stage,caused by information factors.The fundamental reasons on consumer confusion lie on information overload and information insufficiency.In essence,consumer confusion comes from the contradiction between the limitation of the cognitive ability of human being and the infiniteness and disordering of goods and services information.Consumer confusion will not only affect consumer rights and interests,but also damage market mechanism through deviating consumer decision making.Besides,it can cause consumers to delay their decisions and even avoid decision,which will suppress the whole society consumption.The advancement of market economy,the advent of Internet Era,and the rapid development of marketing theory and practice are the social foundations of the generalization of consumer confusion problem.Information chaos,fuzzy expression and key information hiding are three improper practices causing consumer to confusion directly.Cheating prohibition system and false & misleading advertising prohibition system can't regulate those unfair practices.We should take Information Arrival,Information Truth & Clear and Information Sufficient & Necessary as principles of operator information obligation.It's also necessary to improve existing relevant rules and construct multi-dimensional supporting measures.Actually,regulation on unfair practices leading to consumer confusion is a type of deep regulation on business activities.It is related with operation freedom and commercial speech freedom.We should be careful and well-advised on regulation position and strategy determination.
引文
(1)李昌麒、许明月:《消费者保护法》,法律出版社2014年版,第1页。
(2)有关国外消费者困惑研究的详细整理,参见涂红伟、夏俊俊、郭功星:《消费者困惑研究脉络梳理与未来展望》,载《外国经济与管理》2016年第12期。
(3)Schweizer M,Kotouc A J,Wagner T.Scale Development for Consumer Confusion.Advances in Consciousness Research.2006,33(1):184-190.
(4)Leek S,Chansawatkit S.Consumer Confusion in the Thai Mobile Phone Market.Journal of Consumer Behavior,2006,5(6):518-532.
(5)See Miaoulis,George,and N.D'Amato.Consumer Confusion&Trademark Infringement.Journal of Marketing,1978,42(2):48-55.
(6)Foxman E R,Berger P W,Cote J A.Consumer Brand Confusion:A Conceptual Framework.Psychology and Marketing,1992,9(2):123-141.
(7)Foxman E R,Muehling D D,Berger P W.An Investigation of Factors Contributing to Consumer Brand Confusion.The Journal of Consumer Affairs,1990,24(1):170-189.
(8)Mitchell V W,Papavassiliou V.Marketing Causes and Implications Of Consumer Confusion.Journal of Product&Brand Management,1999,8(4):319-342.
(9)See Mitchell V W,Walsh G,Yamin M.Towards a Conceptual Model of Consumer Confusion.Advances in Consumer Research,2005,32:143-150;Garaus M,Wagner U.Retail Shopper Confusion:Conceptualization,Scale Development,and Consequences.Journal of Business Research,2016,69(9):3459-3467.
(10)Sachse M,Drengner J,Jahn S.Negative Effects of Event Sponsoring and Ambushing:The case of consumer confusion.Advances in Consumer Research,2010,37(5):546-547.
(11)Edward M,Sahadev S.Modeling the Consequences of Customer Confusion in a Service Marketing Context:An Empirical Study.Journal of Services Research,2012,12(2):127-146.
(12)Kasabov E.What We Know,don’t Know,and should Know about Confusion Marketing.European Journal of Marketing,2015,49(11-12):1777-1808.
(13)Ozkan E,Tolon M.The Effects of Information Overload on Consumer Confusion:An Examination on User Generated Content.Bogazi9i Journal Review of Social,Economic and Administrative Studies,2015,29(1):27-51.
(14)有研究揭示电脑市场、移动APP领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Leek S,Kun D.Consumer Confusion in the Chinese Personal Computer Market.Journal of Product&Brand Management,2006,15(3):184-193;Ghosh T,Rao V G.Consumer Confusion in Mobile Application Buying:the Moderating Role of Need for Cognition.International Journal of E-Business Research,2014,10(4):52-70.有研究讨论了金融服务领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Shukla P,Banerjee M,Adidam P T.Antecedents and Consequences of Consumer Confusion:Analysis of the Financial ServicesIndustry.Advances in Consumer Research,2010,37(4):292-298.有研究揭示了洗衣粉消费者中的消费者困惑,参见Alarabi S,Gr9nblad S.The Effects of Consumer Confusion on Decision Postponement and Brand Loyalty in a Low Involvement Product category.F9retagsekonomi,2012.有研究揭示食品领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Wobker I,Eberhardt T,Kenning P.Consumer Confusion in German Food Retailing:The Moderating Role of Trust.International Journal of Retail&Distribution Management,2015,43(8):752-774.有研究讨论了旅游领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Lu A C C,Gursoy D,Lu C Y R.Antecedents and Outcomes of Consumers’Confusion in the Online Tourism Domain.Annalsof Tourism Research,2016,57:76-93.
(15)Shukla P,Banerjee M,Adidam P T.Antecedents and consequences of consumer confusion:Analysis of the financial services industry.Advances in Consumer Research,2010,37(4):292-298.
(16)Ghosh T,Rao V G.Consumer confusion in mobile application buying:The moderating role of need for cognition.International Journal of E-Business Research,2014,10(4):52-70.;Garaus M,Wagner U,Kummer C.Cognitive fit,retail shopper confusion,and shopping value:Empirical investigation.Journal of Business Research,2015,68(5):1003-1011.
(17)Lurie N H.Decision making in information-rich environments:The role of informationstructure.Journal of Consumer Research,2004,30(4):473-486.
(18)胡新明:《基于商品属性的电子商务推荐系统研究》,华中科技大学2012年博士学位论文,第1页。
(19)Wang Q,Shukla P.Linking Sources of Consumer Confusion to Decision Satisfaction:The Role of Choice Goals.Psychology&Marketing,2013,30(4):295-304.
(20)Matzler K,Waiguny M.Consequences of Customer Confusion in Online Hotel Booking.Frew A J ed.,Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2005.Vienna:Springer,2005:306-317.
(21)Leek S,Kun D.Consumer Confusion in the Chinese Personal Computer Market.Journal of Product&Brand Management,2006,15(3):184-193
(22)Walsh,K.Marketing and Public Sector Management.European Journal of Marketing,1999,28(3):63-71.
(23)王墨涵:《开放式在线评论对消费者购买决策的影响研究》,哈尔滨工业大学2015年博士学位论文,第37页。
(24)同上注。
(25)Lomax W,Sherski E,Todd S.Assessing the Risk of Consumer Confusion:Practical Test Results Manrai A K,Meadow H L eds.,Global perspectives in marketing for the 21st century.Springer International Publishing,2015:362-365.
(26)Scardamaglia A,Daly A.Google,Online Search and Consumer Confusion in Australia.Social Science Electronic Publishing,2016,24(3):203-228.
(27)Foxman E R,Berger P W,Cote J A.Consumer Brand Confusion:A Conceptual Framework.Psychology and Marketing,1992,9(2):123-141.
(28)Foxman E R,Berger P W,Cote J A.Consumer Brand Confusion:A Conceptual Framework.Psychology and Marketing,1992,9(2):123-141.
(29)Mitchell V W,Walsh G,Yamin M.Towards a Conceptual Model of Consumer Confusion.Advances in Consumer Research,2005,32:143-150.Walsh G,Hennig-Thurau T,Mitchell V W.Consumer Confusion Proneness:Scale Development,Validation,and Application.Journal of Marketing Management,2007,23(7-8):697-721.
(30)Kasabov E.What We Know,don’t Know,and should Know about Confusion Marketing.European Journal of Marketing,2015,49(11-12):1777-1808.
(31)Walsh G,Mitchell V W.The Effect of Consumer Confusion Proneness on Word-of-mouth,Trust,and Customer Satisfaction.European Journal of Marketing,2010,44(6):838-859.Tjiptono F,Arli D,Bucic T.Consumer Confusion Proneness:Insights from a Developing Economy.Marketing Intelligence&Planning,2014,32(6):722-734.
(32)[英]哈福德:《卧底经济学》,赵恒译,中信出版社2009年版,第36页。
(33)如阿里巴巴旗下天猫购物平台就长期存在这种情况。
(34)Parasidis E,Hooker N,Simons C T.Addressing Consumer Confusion Surrounding"Natural"Food Claims.American Journal of Law&Medicine,2015,41(2-3):357-373.
(35)林国全:《证券交易法研究》,台湾元照图书出版公司2000年版,第44页。
(36)参见(2017)川11民终88号民事判决书。
(37)杨宏晖:《从民法与公平交易法的规范面向论述缔约前资讯揭露义务-兼论丹堤咖啡加盟案》,载《公平交易季刊》2013年第3期。
(38)参见欧盟第2011/83/EU号指令第5条、第6条。
(39)笔者通过在有关正品承诺纠纷的实证研究中发现,自2014年,相关纠纷开始涌现。以涉诉最多的天猫商城正品承诺模式为例,迄今22起相关纠纷消费者无一例胜诉。
(40)参见我国台湾地区发布的“公平交易委员会对于公平交易法第二十一条案件之处理原则”,该规范最新的一次修订时在2016年11月。
(41)参见欧盟第2011/83/EU号指令前言第39项。
(42)参见欧盟第2011/83/EU号指令前言第36项。
(43)Federal Trade Commission,.Com Disclosures:How to Make Effective Disclosures in Digital Advertising,https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/business/pdf/bus41-dot-com-disclosures-information-about-online-advertising.pdf.
(44)[美]菲利普·科特勒、加里·阿姆斯特朗等:《市场营销原理》,楼尊译,中国人民大学出版社2010年版,第552页。
(45)See Lauren E.Willis.“Performance-Based Consumer Law”.The University of Chicago Law Review 82.3(2015):1309-1409.
(46)对于“performance-based regulation”,国内的研究还相对有限。已有的研究通常将其直译为“基于绩效的规制”、“基于性能的规制”。但从此类规制的核心意涵来看,这里的performance是指立法所确定的、经营者应达到的具体标准、指标。从便于识别区分及简明称谓等角度考虑,笔者将其译为“合标规制”。
(47)有关绩效规制可参见Sugarman,Stephen D.,and N.Sandman.Fighting Childhood Obesity through PerformanceBased Regulation of the Food Industry.Duke Law Journal,2007,56(6):1403-1490;Coglianese,Cary,J.Nash,and T.Olmstead.Performance-Based Regulation:Prospects and Limitations in Health,Safety,and Environmental Protection.Administrative Law Review,2003,55(4):705-729.
(48)Cary Coglianese.The Limits of Performance-Based Regulation.University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform,2017,50(3):525-563.
(49)凌学东:《消费者合同前信息义务研究》,载《北方法学》2016年第2期。
(2)有关国外消费者困惑研究的详细整理,参见涂红伟、夏俊俊、郭功星:《消费者困惑研究脉络梳理与未来展望》,载《外国经济与管理》2016年第12期。
(3)Schweizer M,Kotouc A J,Wagner T.Scale Development for Consumer Confusion.Advances in Consciousness Research.2006,33(1):184-190.
(4)Leek S,Chansawatkit S.Consumer Confusion in the Thai Mobile Phone Market.Journal of Consumer Behavior,2006,5(6):518-532.
(5)See Miaoulis,George,and N.D'Amato.Consumer Confusion&Trademark Infringement.Journal of Marketing,1978,42(2):48-55.
(6)Foxman E R,Berger P W,Cote J A.Consumer Brand Confusion:A Conceptual Framework.Psychology and Marketing,1992,9(2):123-141.
(7)Foxman E R,Muehling D D,Berger P W.An Investigation of Factors Contributing to Consumer Brand Confusion.The Journal of Consumer Affairs,1990,24(1):170-189.
(8)Mitchell V W,Papavassiliou V.Marketing Causes and Implications Of Consumer Confusion.Journal of Product&Brand Management,1999,8(4):319-342.
(9)See Mitchell V W,Walsh G,Yamin M.Towards a Conceptual Model of Consumer Confusion.Advances in Consumer Research,2005,32:143-150;Garaus M,Wagner U.Retail Shopper Confusion:Conceptualization,Scale Development,and Consequences.Journal of Business Research,2016,69(9):3459-3467.
(10)Sachse M,Drengner J,Jahn S.Negative Effects of Event Sponsoring and Ambushing:The case of consumer confusion.Advances in Consumer Research,2010,37(5):546-547.
(11)Edward M,Sahadev S.Modeling the Consequences of Customer Confusion in a Service Marketing Context:An Empirical Study.Journal of Services Research,2012,12(2):127-146.
(12)Kasabov E.What We Know,don’t Know,and should Know about Confusion Marketing.European Journal of Marketing,2015,49(11-12):1777-1808.
(13)Ozkan E,Tolon M.The Effects of Information Overload on Consumer Confusion:An Examination on User Generated Content.Bogazi9i Journal Review of Social,Economic and Administrative Studies,2015,29(1):27-51.
(14)有研究揭示电脑市场、移动APP领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Leek S,Kun D.Consumer Confusion in the Chinese Personal Computer Market.Journal of Product&Brand Management,2006,15(3):184-193;Ghosh T,Rao V G.Consumer Confusion in Mobile Application Buying:the Moderating Role of Need for Cognition.International Journal of E-Business Research,2014,10(4):52-70.有研究讨论了金融服务领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Shukla P,Banerjee M,Adidam P T.Antecedents and Consequences of Consumer Confusion:Analysis of the Financial ServicesIndustry.Advances in Consumer Research,2010,37(4):292-298.有研究揭示了洗衣粉消费者中的消费者困惑,参见Alarabi S,Gr9nblad S.The Effects of Consumer Confusion on Decision Postponement and Brand Loyalty in a Low Involvement Product category.F9retagsekonomi,2012.有研究揭示食品领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Wobker I,Eberhardt T,Kenning P.Consumer Confusion in German Food Retailing:The Moderating Role of Trust.International Journal of Retail&Distribution Management,2015,43(8):752-774.有研究讨论了旅游领域的消费者困惑问题,参见Lu A C C,Gursoy D,Lu C Y R.Antecedents and Outcomes of Consumers’Confusion in the Online Tourism Domain.Annalsof Tourism Research,2016,57:76-93.
(15)Shukla P,Banerjee M,Adidam P T.Antecedents and consequences of consumer confusion:Analysis of the financial services industry.Advances in Consumer Research,2010,37(4):292-298.
(16)Ghosh T,Rao V G.Consumer confusion in mobile application buying:The moderating role of need for cognition.International Journal of E-Business Research,2014,10(4):52-70.;Garaus M,Wagner U,Kummer C.Cognitive fit,retail shopper confusion,and shopping value:Empirical investigation.Journal of Business Research,2015,68(5):1003-1011.
(17)Lurie N H.Decision making in information-rich environments:The role of informationstructure.Journal of Consumer Research,2004,30(4):473-486.
(18)胡新明:《基于商品属性的电子商务推荐系统研究》,华中科技大学2012年博士学位论文,第1页。
(19)Wang Q,Shukla P.Linking Sources of Consumer Confusion to Decision Satisfaction:The Role of Choice Goals.Psychology&Marketing,2013,30(4):295-304.
(20)Matzler K,Waiguny M.Consequences of Customer Confusion in Online Hotel Booking.Frew A J ed.,Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2005.Vienna:Springer,2005:306-317.
(21)Leek S,Kun D.Consumer Confusion in the Chinese Personal Computer Market.Journal of Product&Brand Management,2006,15(3):184-193
(22)Walsh,K.Marketing and Public Sector Management.European Journal of Marketing,1999,28(3):63-71.
(23)王墨涵:《开放式在线评论对消费者购买决策的影响研究》,哈尔滨工业大学2015年博士学位论文,第37页。
(24)同上注。
(25)Lomax W,Sherski E,Todd S.Assessing the Risk of Consumer Confusion:Practical Test Results Manrai A K,Meadow H L eds.,Global perspectives in marketing for the 21st century.Springer International Publishing,2015:362-365.
(26)Scardamaglia A,Daly A.Google,Online Search and Consumer Confusion in Australia.Social Science Electronic Publishing,2016,24(3):203-228.
(27)Foxman E R,Berger P W,Cote J A.Consumer Brand Confusion:A Conceptual Framework.Psychology and Marketing,1992,9(2):123-141.
(28)Foxman E R,Berger P W,Cote J A.Consumer Brand Confusion:A Conceptual Framework.Psychology and Marketing,1992,9(2):123-141.
(29)Mitchell V W,Walsh G,Yamin M.Towards a Conceptual Model of Consumer Confusion.Advances in Consumer Research,2005,32:143-150.Walsh G,Hennig-Thurau T,Mitchell V W.Consumer Confusion Proneness:Scale Development,Validation,and Application.Journal of Marketing Management,2007,23(7-8):697-721.
(30)Kasabov E.What We Know,don’t Know,and should Know about Confusion Marketing.European Journal of Marketing,2015,49(11-12):1777-1808.
(31)Walsh G,Mitchell V W.The Effect of Consumer Confusion Proneness on Word-of-mouth,Trust,and Customer Satisfaction.European Journal of Marketing,2010,44(6):838-859.Tjiptono F,Arli D,Bucic T.Consumer Confusion Proneness:Insights from a Developing Economy.Marketing Intelligence&Planning,2014,32(6):722-734.
(32)[英]哈福德:《卧底经济学》,赵恒译,中信出版社2009年版,第36页。
(33)如阿里巴巴旗下天猫购物平台就长期存在这种情况。
(34)Parasidis E,Hooker N,Simons C T.Addressing Consumer Confusion Surrounding"Natural"Food Claims.American Journal of Law&Medicine,2015,41(2-3):357-373.
(35)林国全:《证券交易法研究》,台湾元照图书出版公司2000年版,第44页。
(36)参见(2017)川11民终88号民事判决书。
(37)杨宏晖:《从民法与公平交易法的规范面向论述缔约前资讯揭露义务-兼论丹堤咖啡加盟案》,载《公平交易季刊》2013年第3期。
(38)参见欧盟第2011/83/EU号指令第5条、第6条。
(39)笔者通过在有关正品承诺纠纷的实证研究中发现,自2014年,相关纠纷开始涌现。以涉诉最多的天猫商城正品承诺模式为例,迄今22起相关纠纷消费者无一例胜诉。
(40)参见我国台湾地区发布的“公平交易委员会对于公平交易法第二十一条案件之处理原则”,该规范最新的一次修订时在2016年11月。
(41)参见欧盟第2011/83/EU号指令前言第39项。
(42)参见欧盟第2011/83/EU号指令前言第36项。
(43)Federal Trade Commission,.Com Disclosures:How to Make Effective Disclosures in Digital Advertising,https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/business/pdf/bus41-dot-com-disclosures-information-about-online-advertising.pdf.
(44)[美]菲利普·科特勒、加里·阿姆斯特朗等:《市场营销原理》,楼尊译,中国人民大学出版社2010年版,第552页。
(45)See Lauren E.Willis.“Performance-Based Consumer Law”.The University of Chicago Law Review 82.3(2015):1309-1409.
(46)对于“performance-based regulation”,国内的研究还相对有限。已有的研究通常将其直译为“基于绩效的规制”、“基于性能的规制”。但从此类规制的核心意涵来看,这里的performance是指立法所确定的、经营者应达到的具体标准、指标。从便于识别区分及简明称谓等角度考虑,笔者将其译为“合标规制”。
(47)有关绩效规制可参见Sugarman,Stephen D.,and N.Sandman.Fighting Childhood Obesity through PerformanceBased Regulation of the Food Industry.Duke Law Journal,2007,56(6):1403-1490;Coglianese,Cary,J.Nash,and T.Olmstead.Performance-Based Regulation:Prospects and Limitations in Health,Safety,and Environmental Protection.Administrative Law Review,2003,55(4):705-729.
(48)Cary Coglianese.The Limits of Performance-Based Regulation.University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform,2017,50(3):525-563.
(49)凌学东:《消费者合同前信息义务研究》,载《北方法学》2016年第2期。