从代表制到代表制政体——再论美国革命时期民主概念的演变
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摘要
关于代表制与民主相结合而形成的新型政体究竟是不是真正的民主,思想界和学术界长期存在激烈的争论。要对这个问题做出可信的解释,必须回到把代表制嫁接到民主之上的历史语境中。美国革命时期形成的代表制虽然源自中世纪中后期,但它不再是英国那种以地域和等级为基础的代表制,而是贯彻到政府所有分支的"人民的代表制",是体现或落实人民主权的基本机制,因而被革命一代理解成一种具有民主属性的新型政体。不过,革命一代对于这种代表制政体的民主属性并没有一致的看法。精英主义者强调代表制民主之优越于"纯粹的民主"的地方,恰恰在于它把人民排除在政府之外;而民众主义者则坚持只有受到人民直接控制的代表制政体,才是真正的民主。美国革命时期出现的代表制民主虽然存在许多缺陷,但是预示了一条不同于君主制和贵族制的治理现代化国家的新道路,因而具有划时代的意义。
It has long been a hotly debated issue among historians and political theorists that whether the new type of government derived from the integration of political representation and democracy is still genuine democracy. In order to procure a convincing interpretation of this question,it is definitely necessary to put it into the historical context in which the engraftment had taken place. The representative system emerged during the American Revolution had its origins in mid and late Medieval Europe,but it was a "people's representation"that permeated every branch of the government,rather than the English representation that had been based on geographical regions and social ranks; it was deemed a basic mechanic to embody or implement the doctrine of popular sovereignty,thus was understood as a new type of government with democratic attribute. But however,the revolutionary generation did not share consensus as to this democratic nature of that representative government. Those "elitists"stressed that the very advantage of representative democracy over the so-called pure or perfect democracy was its exclusion of the people from government; whereas the "populists"contended that only the representative government directly controlled by the people was a real democracy. Although the representative democracy that took its shape in the revolutionary period was indeed a democracy with various weaknesses,it indicated a new mode of the governance of modern state. Therefore,it was significant for ushering in a new epoch.
It has long been a hotly debated issue among historians and political theorists that whether the new type of government derived from the integration of political representation and democracy is still genuine democracy. In order to procure a convincing interpretation of this question,it is definitely necessary to put it into the historical context in which the engraftment had taken place. The representative system emerged during the American Revolution had its origins in mid and late Medieval Europe,but it was a "people's representation"that permeated every branch of the government,rather than the English representation that had been based on geographical regions and social ranks; it was deemed a basic mechanic to embody or implement the doctrine of popular sovereignty,thus was understood as a new type of government with democratic attribute. But however,the revolutionary generation did not share consensus as to this democratic nature of that representative government. Those "elitists"stressed that the very advantage of representative democracy over the so-called pure or perfect democracy was its exclusion of the people from government; whereas the "populists"contended that only the representative government directly controlled by the people was a real democracy. Although the representative democracy that took its shape in the revolutionary period was indeed a democracy with various weaknesses,it indicated a new mode of the governance of modern state. Therefore,it was significant for ushering in a new epoch.
引文
①Thomas Paine,Rights of Man,Common Sense,and Other Political Writings,New York:Oxford University Press,1998,pp.210,229-233.
②Alexis de Tocqueville,Democracy in America,Trans.by Henry Reeve,New York:A Bantam Classic,2000,p.62;译文见托克维尔《论美国的民主》上册,董果良译,北京:商务印书馆,1991年,第194页。
①Hanna Fenichel Pitkin,“Representation and Democracy:Uneasy Alliance,”Scandinavian Political Studies,Vol.27,No.3,2004,pp.337-342.
②我曾写过一篇题为《美国革命时期民主概念的演变》(《历史研究》2007年第1期)的文章,集中讨论现代民主概念的形成,本文系对那篇文章的补充和深化。
③Hanna Fenichel Pitkin,The Concept of Representation,Berkeley:University of California Press,1967,pp.2-3,246-249.关于代表制的实践先于代表制的概念的说法,参见Helen Cam,“The Theory and Practice of Representation in Medieval England,”in Helen Cam,Law-Finders and Law-Makers in Medieval England:Collected Studies in Legal and Constitutional History,Fairfield,NJ:Augustus M.Kelley,1979,p.167。
④David A.Bell,“The Unrepresentable French?”in Maija Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation:State Building in Early Modern Europe and European America,New York:Palgrave,2007,pp.76-77.
①S.E.Finer,The History of Government,Oxford,UK:Oxford University Press,1997,Vol.Ⅱ,p.1024.
②Jeannine Quillet,“Community,Counsel and Representation,”in J.H.Burns,ed.,The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought,c.350-c.1450,Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1988,pp.545-554.
③J.R.Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,924-1327,Oxford,UK:Oxford University Press,2010,pp.1-4,153-154.
④1213年约翰王就曾从每郡征召4名骑士前去商议王国事务。
⑤Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,p.379.
⑥以上三个事件的相关历史文件见William Stubbs,ed.,Selected Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional History,London:Oxford University Press,1957,pp.365-366,399-407,479-482;其现代英语译本见George Burton Adams,H.Morse Stephens,eds.,Selected Documents of English Constitutional History,New York:The Macmillan Company,1924,pp.55-56,68,82-84。另,关于中世纪英国议会和代表制形成和演化的一般性论述,参见George L.Haskins,The Growth of English Representative Government,London:Oxford University Press,1948;J.E.A.Jolliffe,The Constitutional History of Medieval England,London:Adam&Charles Black,1948,pp.331-408;Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,2010。
⑦Jolliffe,The Constitutional History of Medieval England,pp.332,340.
①根据英王谕令标准的报酬是骑士一天4先令,自由民代表一天2先令;但实际支付的数额则因时因地而异。参见Helen M.Cam,Liberties and Communities in Medieval England:Collected Studies in Local Administration and Topography,London:Merlin Press,1963,p.228。
②这两个术语参考了英国学者Thomas Bisson的说法。见Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,p.377。
③有的学者认为,英国君主引入代表制的主要意图,就是要通过代表在议会向国王提交其选区的陈情,只是这种论点没有足够的证据支持。但是,向英王传递臣民的陈情,后来确实变成了议会代表的一项工作。在中世纪英国立法行动的三个来源中,被统治者陈述怨情的要求(主要是具有公共性质的陈情)即为其一,而且较之另外两个来源显得更丰富、更重要,可见议会代表传递并将陈情转化为立法动议的功能,对于他们参与决策具有重要意义,是代表制作为王国统治机制的一部分的主要实现途径。参见Cam,Liberties and Communities in Medieval England,p.224;Helen Cam,“The Legislators of Medieval England,”in Cam,Law-Finders and Law-Makers in Medieval England,pp.133-135,144-145,146,158。
①Edmund S.Morgan,Inventing the People:The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America,New York:W.W.Norton,1988,p.210.
②“Addition to the Act Entitled an Act for Setting Forth of General Privileges,in Massachusetts,1694,”in W.Keith Kavenagh,ed.,Foundations of Colonial America:A Documentary History,New York:Chelsea House Publishers,1973,Vol.I,p.317.
③Merrill Jensen,ed.,American Colonial Documents to 1776,In English Historical Documents,Vol.9,London:Eyre&Spottiswoode,1955,p.260.
④Bernard Bailyn,The Origins of American Politics,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1968,pp.153-154.
①Jack P.Greene,The Quest for Power:The Lower House of Assembly in the Southern Royal Colonies,1689-1776,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.,1963,see especially pp.357-362.
②Jack P.Greene,“Traditions of Consensual Governance in the Construction of State Authority in the Early Modern Empires in America,”in Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation,p.181.
③Bernard Bailyn,The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution,Cambridge,Mass.:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1967,pp.162-165.所谓“实质性代表制”原文为“virtual representation”,其中“virtual”一词与“real"“actual“相对,有“虚拟”之意。据贝林所引弗吉尼亚的阿瑟·李1768年批驳英国的代表制理念的一段话:“我们的权利是virtual的,我们的苦难则是real的……我们可否自我满足地认为,与某种virtual的代表制紧密相随而来的是某种virtual的服从呢……”(Arthur Lee,"MonitorⅢ,”Virginia Gazette,March 10,1768,quoted in Bailyn,Ideological Origins,p.168)显然此处的“virtual”当作“虚拟”解。但是,“virtual representation”中文通译“实质性代表制”约定俗成,今姑从之。
④Morgan,Inventing the People,pp.146-147.
①Moses Mather,America's Appeal to the Impartial World,Hartford,1775,p.70.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
②To Mrs.Hannah Corbin,March 17,1778,in James Curtis Ballagh,ed.,The Letters of Richard Henry Lee,New York:The Macmillan Company,1911,Vol.I,p.392.
③Journal of the Convention for Forming a Constitution of Government for the State of Massachusetts Bay,from the Commencement of their First Session,September 1,1779,to the Close of the Last Session,June 16,1780,Boston:Dutton and Wentworth,1832,p.121.
④Constitution of New Hampshire,1776,in Francis Newton Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,Colonial Charters,and Other Organic Laws of the State Conventions,Territories,and Colonies Now or Heretofore Forming the United States of America,Washington:GPO,1909,pp.2451-2453.
⑤Constitution of New Hampshire,1784,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2453-2470.
⑥Constitution of Pennsylvania,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3081-3092.
⑦Constitution of Georgia,1777,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.777-785.
①Constitution of New Jersey,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2594-2598.
②Constitution of Delaware,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.562-568.
③Constitution of Virginia,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3812-3819.
④Constitution of South Carolina,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3241-3248;Constitution of South Carolina,1778,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3248-3257.
⑤Constitution of North Carolina,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2787-2794.
⑥Constitution of Maryland,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.1686-1701.
⑦Constitution of New York,1777,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2623-2638.
⑧The Constitution of 1780,in Oscar Handlin and Mary Handlin,eds.,The Popular Sources of Political Authority:Documents on the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780,Cambridge,Mass.:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1966,pp.448-465.
⑨Jackson Turner Main,The Sovereign States,1775-1783,New York:New Viewpoints,1973,pp.184-185.伍德描述了1776年各州宪法所反映的政治文化取向,强调民主倾向在其中占主导地位,并未把辉格派观点和民主观点置于相互对立的地位。参见Gordon S.Wood,The Creation of the American Republic,1776-1787,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,1972,pp.163-181。
①Samuel Ward to Henry Ward,31st Dec.,1775,in Paul H.Smith,Gerard W.Gawalt,Rosemary Fry Plakas,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,1774-1789,Electronic Text Center,University of Virginia Library,2001,Vol.2,p.539.(http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/)
②Thomas Jefferson's Notes of Proceedings in Congress,July 12-August 1,1776,in Smith,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,Vol.4,pp.441-445.(text.lib.virginia.edu/)
③John Adams to Joseph Hawley,Aug.25,1776,in Taylor,ed.,Papers of John Adams,Vol.4,pp.496-497.
④John Adams'Notes of Debates,Aug.1.1776,in in Smith,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,Vol.4,p.592.(text.lib.virginia.edu/);Benjamin Rush's Notes for a Speech in Congress,Aug.1.1776,in in Smith,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,Vol.4,p.599.(text.lib.virginia.edu/)
⑤James Wilson,June 29,1787,in Max Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787,New Haven:Yale University Press,1966,Vol.I,p.348.
①Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.20-21,36-37,176-180,490,500,515,578,580-581,586-587,593-597;Vol.II,pp.15,221-223.
②双方辩论的主要文献,参见Herbert J.Storing,ed.,The Complete Anti-Federalist,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1981;Merrill Jensen,John P.Kaminski,and Gaspare J.Saladino,eds.,The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution,Vol.I-,Madison,Wis.:State Historical Society of Wisconsin,1976-;Hamilton,Madison,Jay,The Federalist Papers,New York:New American Library,1961;Colleen A.Sheehan and Gary L.McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution:Writings of the“Other”Federalists 1787-1788,Indianapolis:Liberty Fund,1998。
③Edmund Burke,“Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents,”in Edmund Burke,The Political Tracts and Speeches of Edmund Burke,Dublin,MDCCLXXVII,p.216.
①John Phillip Reid,The Concept of Representation in the Age of the American Revolution,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1989,pp.6,145.
②Marc W.Kruman,Between Authority&Liberty:State Constitution Making in Revolutionary America,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1997,p.x.
③Gordon S.Wood,Representation in the American Revolution,Charlottesville:The University Press of Virginia,1969,pp.16,17.
④Cam,“The Theory and Practice of Representation in Medieval England,”in Cam,Law-Finders and Law-Makers,pp.167-168,170,172.
⑤Reid,The Concept of Representation,pp.32-34;H.T.Dickinson,“The Representation of the People in EighteenthCentury Britain,”in Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation,pp.25-27.
⑥Main,The Sovereign States,p.113.
①1642年6月查理一世在《答议会第十九条》(Answer to the Nineteenth Proposition)中明确表达了这种政治理念。他强调,英国政体是绝对君主制、贵族制和民主制的混合,体现了三个等级的平衡,避免了三种单纯政体的弊端,发挥了它们的长处:“在这个王国,法律是由国王、贵族院和人民选出的平民院一起制定的,三者都有自由表决权和特定的特权……”参见“The King's Answer to the Nineteenth Propositions,18 June 1642,”in J.P.Kenyon,ed.,The Stuart Constitution,1603-1688:Documents and Commentary,Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1966,pp.21-23。
②Morgan,Inventing the People,pp.216,218.
①Morgan,Inventing the People,pp.42-49;W.B.Gwyn,The Meaning of the Separation of Powers:An Analysis of the Doctrine from Its Origin to the Adoption of the Unites States Constitution,New Orleans:Tulane University,1965,p.61;Jack N.Rakove,Original Meanings:Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution,New York:Vintage Books,1997,pp.210-211;Dickinson,"The Representation of the People in Eighteenth-Century Britain,”in Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation,pp.22-23,32-38.
②Pinckney,June 25,1787,in Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.402-403.
③影响最大的说法见Madison,"The Federalist No.10,”in Hamilton,Madison,Jay,The Federalist Papers,pp.77-84。
④Pole,Political Representation,pp.175-177.
⑤The Essex Result,1778,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,pp.335-336,340-341.
①The Independent Chronicle,Dec.22,1785.
②Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.469-470,475,529,542.
③Harry A.Cushing,History of the Transition from Provincial to Commonwealth Government in Massachusetts,New York:Columbia University,1896,p.269.
④[Anonymous],“The People the Best Governors,”in Charles S.Hyneman and Donald S.Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing during the Founding Era,1760-1805,Indianapolis:Liberty Press,1983,Vol.I,p.394.
⑤Melvin Yazawa,ed.,Representative Government and the Revolution:The Maryland Constitutional Crisis of 1787,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1975,pp.56-57.
⑥Yazawa,ed.,Representative Government,pp.78-79,156.
⑦Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.233,234,273;Vol.Ⅱ,p.274.
①See Wood,The Creation of the American Republic,pp.244-255.
②Address of the Convention,March 1780,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,p.437.
③Returns of the Towns on The Constitution of 1780:Groton,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,p.640.
④Returns of the Towns on the Constitution of 1780:Newburyport,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,p.916.
⑤Returns of the Towns on the Constitution of 1780:Wells,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,pp.735-736.
⑥Zabdiel Adams,“An Election Sermon,”in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,Vol.I,p.547.
⑦Mason,June 4,1787,in Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,p.101.
⑧Gouverneur Morris,July 19,1787,in Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.52-53.
⑨James Bowdoin,Jan.23,1788,in Jonathan Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution,as Recommended by the General Convention at Philadelphia in 1787,Philadelphia:J.B.Lippincott&Co.,1861,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.85,87.
①Hamilton,June 21 and 27,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.253,348.
②“An American Citizen“(Tench Coxe),“An Examination of the Constitution of the United States,”in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,pp.469-470.
③See Bryan Garsten,“Representative Government and Popular Sovereignty,”in Ian Shapiro,et al.,eds.,Political Representation,Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,2009,pp.107-109.
④这里的讨论表明,前文提到的“代议制”和“代议制民主”的用法的确是不准确的。中国人对于欧美代表制政体的了解从清朝中期开始逐渐走向全面和深入,但始终存在很大的局限。最初人们最大的关切在于在君主制的框架内召开士绅代表会议,伸张绅权,使下情上达,以利于商定国是,因而仅把代表制对应于议事,并且把欧美的立法机构理解为一般的会议,于是以“代议制”对译“(political)representation”,以“议会”对译“parliament”或“congress”。这些译法一直沿袭至今,具备了约定俗成的效力。其实,英国中古通行的观念认为,国王、贵族院和平民院在不同的意义上代表整个王国;美国革命一代所理解的“(political)representation”,是指从立法到执行等所有政府事务都由民选的代表来处理。可见,“(political)representation”并不局限于议事性代表会议。另外,在现代政治学理论中也有把民选的行政首脑作为“representative”的说法,认为执行机构和立法机构一起构成“representative government”。基于这些理由,“(political)representation”就不宜译作“代议制”而以“代表制”,的译法为佳。关于近代中国人对欧美议会和代表制的认识,参见熊月之《中国近代民主思想史》(修订本),上海:上海社会科学院出版社,2002年;张朋园《中国民主政治的困境1909-1949》,吉林:吉林出版集团,2008年,第3-48页;关于当代政治学理论中有关代表包括议员和行政长官的说法,参见J.R.Pennock,Democratic Political Theory,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1979,p.313。
⑤Zachariah Johnson,June 25,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅲ,p.646.
①H(arry).T(homas).Dickinson,Liberty and Property:Political Ideology in Eighteenth-Century Britain,London:Methuen and Company,1977,pp.46,48,82-83.
②关于卢梭和贡斯当担忧人民的主权遭到篡夺的思想,参见Garsten,“Representative Government and Popular Sovereignty,”in Shapiro,et al.,eds.,Political Representation,pp.96-97,99。
③Dickinson,Liberty and Property,pp.216-217,222-224.
④James Otis,The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved,in Bernard Bailyn,ed.,Pamphlets of the American Revolution,1750-1776,Vol.1,Cambridge,Mass.:The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press,1965,pp.443,446.
⑤Francis Allison,et al.,“An Address to the Ministers and Presbyterian Congregations in North Carolina,”in William L.Saunders,ed.,The Colonial Records of North Carolina,Raleigh,NC:Josephus Daniels,1890,Vol.10,p.224.
①John Reid,“The Rule of Law,”in Jack P.Greene,and J.R.Pole,eds.,A Companion to the American Revolution,Malden,Mass.:Blackwell Publishers,2000,pp.647-648.
②Quoted in J.C.D.Clark,The Language of Liberty 1660-1832:Political Discourse and Social Dynamics in the Anglo-American World,Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press,1994,pp.116-117.
③Thomas Tudor Tucker,"Conciliatory Hints…",in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,pp.622-623.
④Giles Hickory(Noah Webster),“Government,”American Magazine,Jan.1,1788,pp.75,76-78.
⑤Elliot,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.IV,p.63.
①卢梭《社会契约论》,何兆武译,北京:商务印书馆,1994年,第125-128页。
②Randolph,June 10,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅲ,p.199.
③Noah Webster,An Examination into the Leading Principles of the Federal Constitution,in Paul Leicester Ford,ed.,Pamphlets on the Constitution of the United States,New York:Da Capo Press,1968,p.30.
④"Cato,”"Essay,12 Dec.,”1787,in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,pp.346-348.
⑤Paine,Rights of Man,pp.235-236,388.
⑥Jones,Jan.22,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.75.
⑦Rufus King,Jan.15,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.19.
⑧“An American Citizen(Tench Coxe),""An Examination of the Constitution of the United States,”in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,pp.466-467.
①Thacher,Feb.4,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.145.
②Richard Law,Jan.9.1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.200-201.
③Wilson,Nov.26,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.423-424.
④John Adams to John Taylor,1814,in Charles Francis Adams,ed.,The Works of John Adams,Boston:Charles C.Little&James Brown,1850-1856,Vol.VI,p.469.
⑤进入19世纪,随着议会下院成为权力中心和选举权的扩大,英国政治体制也变成了代表制政府。但是,这种代表制政府与美国革命期间出现的代表制政府有很大的不同:美国革命一代所理解的代表制政府,是指一切政府权力都来自于人民的委托,所有政府分支都建立在代表制的基础上;而英国的代表制政府则侧重议会下院在政府的权力结构中的核心地位。
⑥John Russell Bartlett,ed.,Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations,in New England,Providence:A.Crawford Greene and Brother,State Printers,1856-1857,Vol.1,p.112.
⑦John Wise,A Vindication of the Government of New-England Churches,Gainesville,Florida:Scholars'Facsimiles&Reprints,1958,pp.47-50.
①The Boston Gazette and County Journal,Sept.2,1765.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
②The New York Journal,May 30,1776.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
③[Anonymous],“The People the Best Governors,”in Hyneman and Lutz,ed.,American Political Writing,Vol.Ⅰ,pp.391-393.
④Hamilton to Gouverneur Morris,May 19th,1777,in Harold C.Syrett,ed.,The Papers of Alexander Hamilton,New York:Columbia University Press,1962,Vol.I,p.255.
⑤Tucker,"Conciliatory Hints…,”in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,pp.612-614.
⑥“Lycurgus,”Connecticut Courant,April 3,1786.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
⑦James Wilson,Nov.28 and Dec.4,1787,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.439-440,482.其中“REPRESENTATION”,“PEOPLE”,“DEMOCRATIC”全部大写,其余单词斜体。
①Jay,“To the People of the State of New York,”in Elliot,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅰ,p.498.
②Alexander Hamilton,“New York Ratifying Convention,Notes for Speech of July 12,"in Syrett,ed.,The Papers of Alexander Hamilton,Vol.Ⅴ,pp.150-151.
③Hamilton,Madison,Jay,The Federalist Papers,pp.82,100,241,309-310,387.
④“Fabius”(John Dickinson),“The Letters,Ⅷ,"in Sheehan and McDowell,ed.,Friends of the Constitution,p.493;James Wilson,Dec.4,1787,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.478;William Vans Murray,Political Sketches,Inscribed to His Excellency John Adams,London,1787,pp.62-63.(http://galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO)
⑤Yazawa,ed.,Representative Government,pp.95-96.
⑥“A Foreign Spectator”(Nicholas Collin),“An Essay on the Means of Promoting Federal Sentiments in the United States,”in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,p.425.
⑦“Fabius“(John Dickinson),"The Letters,Ⅷ,"in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,p.493.
①John Barlow,“To His Fellow Citizens of the United States,”in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.1106-1107.
②Giles Hickory(Noah Webste),“Government,”American Magazine,March 1,1788,p.207.
③“The Fallacies of the Freeman Detected by A Farmer,”in Storing,ed.,The Complete Anti-Federalist,Vol.Ⅲ,p.182.
④James Monroe,June 10,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅲ,p.210.
①Paine,Rights of Man,p.233.
②Wood,The Creation of the American Republic,pp.600-604.
③关于美国革命时期代表制辩论中民众主义与精英主义的分歧和较量,参见李剑鸣《美国革命时期关于代表制的分歧与争论》,《史学月刊》2014年第11期。
②Alexis de Tocqueville,Democracy in America,Trans.by Henry Reeve,New York:A Bantam Classic,2000,p.62;译文见托克维尔《论美国的民主》上册,董果良译,北京:商务印书馆,1991年,第194页。
①Hanna Fenichel Pitkin,“Representation and Democracy:Uneasy Alliance,”Scandinavian Political Studies,Vol.27,No.3,2004,pp.337-342.
②我曾写过一篇题为《美国革命时期民主概念的演变》(《历史研究》2007年第1期)的文章,集中讨论现代民主概念的形成,本文系对那篇文章的补充和深化。
③Hanna Fenichel Pitkin,The Concept of Representation,Berkeley:University of California Press,1967,pp.2-3,246-249.关于代表制的实践先于代表制的概念的说法,参见Helen Cam,“The Theory and Practice of Representation in Medieval England,”in Helen Cam,Law-Finders and Law-Makers in Medieval England:Collected Studies in Legal and Constitutional History,Fairfield,NJ:Augustus M.Kelley,1979,p.167。
④David A.Bell,“The Unrepresentable French?”in Maija Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation:State Building in Early Modern Europe and European America,New York:Palgrave,2007,pp.76-77.
①S.E.Finer,The History of Government,Oxford,UK:Oxford University Press,1997,Vol.Ⅱ,p.1024.
②Jeannine Quillet,“Community,Counsel and Representation,”in J.H.Burns,ed.,The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought,c.350-c.1450,Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1988,pp.545-554.
③J.R.Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,924-1327,Oxford,UK:Oxford University Press,2010,pp.1-4,153-154.
④1213年约翰王就曾从每郡征召4名骑士前去商议王国事务。
⑤Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,p.379.
⑥以上三个事件的相关历史文件见William Stubbs,ed.,Selected Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional History,London:Oxford University Press,1957,pp.365-366,399-407,479-482;其现代英语译本见George Burton Adams,H.Morse Stephens,eds.,Selected Documents of English Constitutional History,New York:The Macmillan Company,1924,pp.55-56,68,82-84。另,关于中世纪英国议会和代表制形成和演化的一般性论述,参见George L.Haskins,The Growth of English Representative Government,London:Oxford University Press,1948;J.E.A.Jolliffe,The Constitutional History of Medieval England,London:Adam&Charles Black,1948,pp.331-408;Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,2010。
⑦Jolliffe,The Constitutional History of Medieval England,pp.332,340.
①根据英王谕令标准的报酬是骑士一天4先令,自由民代表一天2先令;但实际支付的数额则因时因地而异。参见Helen M.Cam,Liberties and Communities in Medieval England:Collected Studies in Local Administration and Topography,London:Merlin Press,1963,p.228。
②这两个术语参考了英国学者Thomas Bisson的说法。见Maddicott,The Origins of the English Parliament,p.377。
③有的学者认为,英国君主引入代表制的主要意图,就是要通过代表在议会向国王提交其选区的陈情,只是这种论点没有足够的证据支持。但是,向英王传递臣民的陈情,后来确实变成了议会代表的一项工作。在中世纪英国立法行动的三个来源中,被统治者陈述怨情的要求(主要是具有公共性质的陈情)即为其一,而且较之另外两个来源显得更丰富、更重要,可见议会代表传递并将陈情转化为立法动议的功能,对于他们参与决策具有重要意义,是代表制作为王国统治机制的一部分的主要实现途径。参见Cam,Liberties and Communities in Medieval England,p.224;Helen Cam,“The Legislators of Medieval England,”in Cam,Law-Finders and Law-Makers in Medieval England,pp.133-135,144-145,146,158。
①Edmund S.Morgan,Inventing the People:The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America,New York:W.W.Norton,1988,p.210.
②“Addition to the Act Entitled an Act for Setting Forth of General Privileges,in Massachusetts,1694,”in W.Keith Kavenagh,ed.,Foundations of Colonial America:A Documentary History,New York:Chelsea House Publishers,1973,Vol.I,p.317.
③Merrill Jensen,ed.,American Colonial Documents to 1776,In English Historical Documents,Vol.9,London:Eyre&Spottiswoode,1955,p.260.
④Bernard Bailyn,The Origins of American Politics,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1968,pp.153-154.
①Jack P.Greene,The Quest for Power:The Lower House of Assembly in the Southern Royal Colonies,1689-1776,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.,1963,see especially pp.357-362.
②Jack P.Greene,“Traditions of Consensual Governance in the Construction of State Authority in the Early Modern Empires in America,”in Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation,p.181.
③Bernard Bailyn,The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution,Cambridge,Mass.:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1967,pp.162-165.所谓“实质性代表制”原文为“virtual representation”,其中“virtual”一词与“real"“actual“相对,有“虚拟”之意。据贝林所引弗吉尼亚的阿瑟·李1768年批驳英国的代表制理念的一段话:“我们的权利是virtual的,我们的苦难则是real的……我们可否自我满足地认为,与某种virtual的代表制紧密相随而来的是某种virtual的服从呢……”(Arthur Lee,"MonitorⅢ,”Virginia Gazette,March 10,1768,quoted in Bailyn,Ideological Origins,p.168)显然此处的“virtual”当作“虚拟”解。但是,“virtual representation”中文通译“实质性代表制”约定俗成,今姑从之。
④Morgan,Inventing the People,pp.146-147.
①Moses Mather,America's Appeal to the Impartial World,Hartford,1775,p.70.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
②To Mrs.Hannah Corbin,March 17,1778,in James Curtis Ballagh,ed.,The Letters of Richard Henry Lee,New York:The Macmillan Company,1911,Vol.I,p.392.
③Journal of the Convention for Forming a Constitution of Government for the State of Massachusetts Bay,from the Commencement of their First Session,September 1,1779,to the Close of the Last Session,June 16,1780,Boston:Dutton and Wentworth,1832,p.121.
④Constitution of New Hampshire,1776,in Francis Newton Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,Colonial Charters,and Other Organic Laws of the State Conventions,Territories,and Colonies Now or Heretofore Forming the United States of America,Washington:GPO,1909,pp.2451-2453.
⑤Constitution of New Hampshire,1784,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2453-2470.
⑥Constitution of Pennsylvania,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3081-3092.
⑦Constitution of Georgia,1777,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.777-785.
①Constitution of New Jersey,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2594-2598.
②Constitution of Delaware,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.562-568.
③Constitution of Virginia,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3812-3819.
④Constitution of South Carolina,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3241-3248;Constitution of South Carolina,1778,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.3248-3257.
⑤Constitution of North Carolina,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2787-2794.
⑥Constitution of Maryland,1776,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.1686-1701.
⑦Constitution of New York,1777,in Thorpe,ed.,The Federal and State Constitutions,pp.2623-2638.
⑧The Constitution of 1780,in Oscar Handlin and Mary Handlin,eds.,The Popular Sources of Political Authority:Documents on the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780,Cambridge,Mass.:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1966,pp.448-465.
⑨Jackson Turner Main,The Sovereign States,1775-1783,New York:New Viewpoints,1973,pp.184-185.伍德描述了1776年各州宪法所反映的政治文化取向,强调民主倾向在其中占主导地位,并未把辉格派观点和民主观点置于相互对立的地位。参见Gordon S.Wood,The Creation of the American Republic,1776-1787,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,1972,pp.163-181。
①Samuel Ward to Henry Ward,31st Dec.,1775,in Paul H.Smith,Gerard W.Gawalt,Rosemary Fry Plakas,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,1774-1789,Electronic Text Center,University of Virginia Library,2001,Vol.2,p.539.(http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/)
②Thomas Jefferson's Notes of Proceedings in Congress,July 12-August 1,1776,in Smith,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,Vol.4,pp.441-445.(text.lib.virginia.edu/)
③John Adams to Joseph Hawley,Aug.25,1776,in Taylor,ed.,Papers of John Adams,Vol.4,pp.496-497.
④John Adams'Notes of Debates,Aug.1.1776,in in Smith,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,Vol.4,p.592.(text.lib.virginia.edu/);Benjamin Rush's Notes for a Speech in Congress,Aug.1.1776,in in Smith,et al.,eds.,Letters of Delegates to Congress,Vol.4,p.599.(text.lib.virginia.edu/)
⑤James Wilson,June 29,1787,in Max Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787,New Haven:Yale University Press,1966,Vol.I,p.348.
①Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.20-21,36-37,176-180,490,500,515,578,580-581,586-587,593-597;Vol.II,pp.15,221-223.
②双方辩论的主要文献,参见Herbert J.Storing,ed.,The Complete Anti-Federalist,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1981;Merrill Jensen,John P.Kaminski,and Gaspare J.Saladino,eds.,The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution,Vol.I-,Madison,Wis.:State Historical Society of Wisconsin,1976-;Hamilton,Madison,Jay,The Federalist Papers,New York:New American Library,1961;Colleen A.Sheehan and Gary L.McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution:Writings of the“Other”Federalists 1787-1788,Indianapolis:Liberty Fund,1998。
③Edmund Burke,“Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents,”in Edmund Burke,The Political Tracts and Speeches of Edmund Burke,Dublin,MDCCLXXVII,p.216.
①John Phillip Reid,The Concept of Representation in the Age of the American Revolution,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1989,pp.6,145.
②Marc W.Kruman,Between Authority&Liberty:State Constitution Making in Revolutionary America,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1997,p.x.
③Gordon S.Wood,Representation in the American Revolution,Charlottesville:The University Press of Virginia,1969,pp.16,17.
④Cam,“The Theory and Practice of Representation in Medieval England,”in Cam,Law-Finders and Law-Makers,pp.167-168,170,172.
⑤Reid,The Concept of Representation,pp.32-34;H.T.Dickinson,“The Representation of the People in EighteenthCentury Britain,”in Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation,pp.25-27.
⑥Main,The Sovereign States,p.113.
①1642年6月查理一世在《答议会第十九条》(Answer to the Nineteenth Proposition)中明确表达了这种政治理念。他强调,英国政体是绝对君主制、贵族制和民主制的混合,体现了三个等级的平衡,避免了三种单纯政体的弊端,发挥了它们的长处:“在这个王国,法律是由国王、贵族院和人民选出的平民院一起制定的,三者都有自由表决权和特定的特权……”参见“The King's Answer to the Nineteenth Propositions,18 June 1642,”in J.P.Kenyon,ed.,The Stuart Constitution,1603-1688:Documents and Commentary,Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1966,pp.21-23。
②Morgan,Inventing the People,pp.216,218.
①Morgan,Inventing the People,pp.42-49;W.B.Gwyn,The Meaning of the Separation of Powers:An Analysis of the Doctrine from Its Origin to the Adoption of the Unites States Constitution,New Orleans:Tulane University,1965,p.61;Jack N.Rakove,Original Meanings:Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution,New York:Vintage Books,1997,pp.210-211;Dickinson,"The Representation of the People in Eighteenth-Century Britain,”in Jansson,ed.,Realities of Representation,pp.22-23,32-38.
②Pinckney,June 25,1787,in Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.402-403.
③影响最大的说法见Madison,"The Federalist No.10,”in Hamilton,Madison,Jay,The Federalist Papers,pp.77-84。
④Pole,Political Representation,pp.175-177.
⑤The Essex Result,1778,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,pp.335-336,340-341.
①The Independent Chronicle,Dec.22,1785.
②Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.469-470,475,529,542.
③Harry A.Cushing,History of the Transition from Provincial to Commonwealth Government in Massachusetts,New York:Columbia University,1896,p.269.
④[Anonymous],“The People the Best Governors,”in Charles S.Hyneman and Donald S.Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing during the Founding Era,1760-1805,Indianapolis:Liberty Press,1983,Vol.I,p.394.
⑤Melvin Yazawa,ed.,Representative Government and the Revolution:The Maryland Constitutional Crisis of 1787,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1975,pp.56-57.
⑥Yazawa,ed.,Representative Government,pp.78-79,156.
⑦Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,pp.233,234,273;Vol.Ⅱ,p.274.
①See Wood,The Creation of the American Republic,pp.244-255.
②Address of the Convention,March 1780,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,p.437.
③Returns of the Towns on The Constitution of 1780:Groton,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,p.640.
④Returns of the Towns on the Constitution of 1780:Newburyport,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,p.916.
⑤Returns of the Towns on the Constitution of 1780:Wells,in Handlin and Handlin,eds.,Popular Sources,pp.735-736.
⑥Zabdiel Adams,“An Election Sermon,”in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,Vol.I,p.547.
⑦Mason,June 4,1787,in Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.I,p.101.
⑧Gouverneur Morris,July 19,1787,in Farrand,ed.,The Records of the Federal Convention,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.52-53.
⑨James Bowdoin,Jan.23,1788,in Jonathan Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution,as Recommended by the General Convention at Philadelphia in 1787,Philadelphia:J.B.Lippincott&Co.,1861,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.85,87.
①Hamilton,June 21 and 27,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.253,348.
②“An American Citizen“(Tench Coxe),“An Examination of the Constitution of the United States,”in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,pp.469-470.
③See Bryan Garsten,“Representative Government and Popular Sovereignty,”in Ian Shapiro,et al.,eds.,Political Representation,Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,2009,pp.107-109.
④这里的讨论表明,前文提到的“代议制”和“代议制民主”的用法的确是不准确的。中国人对于欧美代表制政体的了解从清朝中期开始逐渐走向全面和深入,但始终存在很大的局限。最初人们最大的关切在于在君主制的框架内召开士绅代表会议,伸张绅权,使下情上达,以利于商定国是,因而仅把代表制对应于议事,并且把欧美的立法机构理解为一般的会议,于是以“代议制”对译“(political)representation”,以“议会”对译“parliament”或“congress”。这些译法一直沿袭至今,具备了约定俗成的效力。其实,英国中古通行的观念认为,国王、贵族院和平民院在不同的意义上代表整个王国;美国革命一代所理解的“(political)representation”,是指从立法到执行等所有政府事务都由民选的代表来处理。可见,“(political)representation”并不局限于议事性代表会议。另外,在现代政治学理论中也有把民选的行政首脑作为“representative”的说法,认为执行机构和立法机构一起构成“representative government”。基于这些理由,“(political)representation”就不宜译作“代议制”而以“代表制”,的译法为佳。关于近代中国人对欧美议会和代表制的认识,参见熊月之《中国近代民主思想史》(修订本),上海:上海社会科学院出版社,2002年;张朋园《中国民主政治的困境1909-1949》,吉林:吉林出版集团,2008年,第3-48页;关于当代政治学理论中有关代表包括议员和行政长官的说法,参见J.R.Pennock,Democratic Political Theory,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1979,p.313。
⑤Zachariah Johnson,June 25,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅲ,p.646.
①H(arry).T(homas).Dickinson,Liberty and Property:Political Ideology in Eighteenth-Century Britain,London:Methuen and Company,1977,pp.46,48,82-83.
②关于卢梭和贡斯当担忧人民的主权遭到篡夺的思想,参见Garsten,“Representative Government and Popular Sovereignty,”in Shapiro,et al.,eds.,Political Representation,pp.96-97,99。
③Dickinson,Liberty and Property,pp.216-217,222-224.
④James Otis,The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved,in Bernard Bailyn,ed.,Pamphlets of the American Revolution,1750-1776,Vol.1,Cambridge,Mass.:The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press,1965,pp.443,446.
⑤Francis Allison,et al.,“An Address to the Ministers and Presbyterian Congregations in North Carolina,”in William L.Saunders,ed.,The Colonial Records of North Carolina,Raleigh,NC:Josephus Daniels,1890,Vol.10,p.224.
①John Reid,“The Rule of Law,”in Jack P.Greene,and J.R.Pole,eds.,A Companion to the American Revolution,Malden,Mass.:Blackwell Publishers,2000,pp.647-648.
②Quoted in J.C.D.Clark,The Language of Liberty 1660-1832:Political Discourse and Social Dynamics in the Anglo-American World,Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press,1994,pp.116-117.
③Thomas Tudor Tucker,"Conciliatory Hints…",in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,pp.622-623.
④Giles Hickory(Noah Webster),“Government,”American Magazine,Jan.1,1788,pp.75,76-78.
⑤Elliot,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.IV,p.63.
①卢梭《社会契约论》,何兆武译,北京:商务印书馆,1994年,第125-128页。
②Randolph,June 10,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅲ,p.199.
③Noah Webster,An Examination into the Leading Principles of the Federal Constitution,in Paul Leicester Ford,ed.,Pamphlets on the Constitution of the United States,New York:Da Capo Press,1968,p.30.
④"Cato,”"Essay,12 Dec.,”1787,in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,pp.346-348.
⑤Paine,Rights of Man,pp.235-236,388.
⑥Jones,Jan.22,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.75.
⑦Rufus King,Jan.15,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.19.
⑧“An American Citizen(Tench Coxe),""An Examination of the Constitution of the United States,”in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,pp.466-467.
①Thacher,Feb.4,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.145.
②Richard Law,Jan.9.1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.200-201.
③Wilson,Nov.26,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.423-424.
④John Adams to John Taylor,1814,in Charles Francis Adams,ed.,The Works of John Adams,Boston:Charles C.Little&James Brown,1850-1856,Vol.VI,p.469.
⑤进入19世纪,随着议会下院成为权力中心和选举权的扩大,英国政治体制也变成了代表制政府。但是,这种代表制政府与美国革命期间出现的代表制政府有很大的不同:美国革命一代所理解的代表制政府,是指一切政府权力都来自于人民的委托,所有政府分支都建立在代表制的基础上;而英国的代表制政府则侧重议会下院在政府的权力结构中的核心地位。
⑥John Russell Bartlett,ed.,Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations,in New England,Providence:A.Crawford Greene and Brother,State Printers,1856-1857,Vol.1,p.112.
⑦John Wise,A Vindication of the Government of New-England Churches,Gainesville,Florida:Scholars'Facsimiles&Reprints,1958,pp.47-50.
①The Boston Gazette and County Journal,Sept.2,1765.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
②The New York Journal,May 30,1776.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
③[Anonymous],“The People the Best Governors,”in Hyneman and Lutz,ed.,American Political Writing,Vol.Ⅰ,pp.391-393.
④Hamilton to Gouverneur Morris,May 19th,1777,in Harold C.Syrett,ed.,The Papers of Alexander Hamilton,New York:Columbia University Press,1962,Vol.I,p.255.
⑤Tucker,"Conciliatory Hints…,”in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,pp.612-614.
⑥“Lycurgus,”Connecticut Courant,April 3,1786.(http://infoweb.newsbank.com)
⑦James Wilson,Nov.28 and Dec.4,1787,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.439-440,482.其中“REPRESENTATION”,“PEOPLE”,“DEMOCRATIC”全部大写,其余单词斜体。
①Jay,“To the People of the State of New York,”in Elliot,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅰ,p.498.
②Alexander Hamilton,“New York Ratifying Convention,Notes for Speech of July 12,"in Syrett,ed.,The Papers of Alexander Hamilton,Vol.Ⅴ,pp.150-151.
③Hamilton,Madison,Jay,The Federalist Papers,pp.82,100,241,309-310,387.
④“Fabius”(John Dickinson),“The Letters,Ⅷ,"in Sheehan and McDowell,ed.,Friends of the Constitution,p.493;James Wilson,Dec.4,1787,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅱ,p.478;William Vans Murray,Political Sketches,Inscribed to His Excellency John Adams,London,1787,pp.62-63.(http://galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO)
⑤Yazawa,ed.,Representative Government,pp.95-96.
⑥“A Foreign Spectator”(Nicholas Collin),“An Essay on the Means of Promoting Federal Sentiments in the United States,”in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,p.425.
⑦“Fabius“(John Dickinson),"The Letters,Ⅷ,"in Sheehan and McDowell,eds.,Friends of the Constitution,p.493.
①John Barlow,“To His Fellow Citizens of the United States,”in Hyneman and Lutz,eds.,American Political Writing,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.1106-1107.
②Giles Hickory(Noah Webste),“Government,”American Magazine,March 1,1788,p.207.
③“The Fallacies of the Freeman Detected by A Farmer,”in Storing,ed.,The Complete Anti-Federalist,Vol.Ⅲ,p.182.
④James Monroe,June 10,1788,in Elliot,ed.,The Debates of the Several State Conventions,Vol.Ⅲ,p.210.
①Paine,Rights of Man,p.233.
②Wood,The Creation of the American Republic,pp.600-604.
③关于美国革命时期代表制辩论中民众主义与精英主义的分歧和较量,参见李剑鸣《美国革命时期关于代表制的分歧与争论》,《史学月刊》2014年第11期。
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